THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


71   section 


The 
'oultry  man's  Handbook 

A  CONVENIENT  REFERENCE  BOOK 

For  All  Persons  Interested  in  the 

Deduction  of  Eggs  and  Poultry  for  Market 

and  the  Breeding  of  Standard-Bred 

Poultry  for  Exhibition 


BY 

International  Correspondence  Schools 

SCRANTON,  PA. 


1st  Edition,  82d  Thousand,  5th  Impression 


SCRANTON,  PA. 
INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  BY 

INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


PRESS  OF 

INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 
SCRANTON,  PA. 
,^gsgg^u  70421 


PREFACE 

This  handbook  is  intended  as  a  book  of  ref- 
erence for  poultrymen  generally.  The  publishers 
have  not  attempted  to  produce  a  condensed  cyclo- 
pedia covering  the  broad  field  of  poultry  hus- 
bandry, but  they  have  aimed  to  present  to  the 
public  a  handy  reference  book  convenient  to  carry 
in  the  pocket — a  pocketbook  in  reality — and  con- 
taining such  information  as  is  most  often  needed 
by  the  poultrymen  who  handle  fowls  commer- 
cially in  large  numbers,  by  the  persons  who  keep 
a  few  fowls  in  the  back  yard,  and  by  the  breeder 
who  aims  to  produce  poultry  of  the  best  quality 
for  exhibition.  Although  the  treatment  of  some 
subjects  is  of  necessity  brief,  it  has  been  the  aim 
so  to  distribute  the  space  available  that  it  would 
cover  the  more  important  subjects  as  fully  as 
possible. 

The  more  important  poultry  foods  are  briefly 
described  and  discussed,  and  sample  rations  are 
given  for  the  feeding  of  fowls,  chicks,  turkeys, 
guinea  fowls,  pheasants,  ducks,  geese,  pigeons, 
etc.  Much  useful  information  in  regard  to  incu- 
bation and  brooding  is  given.  Eggs  and  market 
poultry  are  discussed  in  some  detail. 


iv  PREFACE 

The  various  methods  of  breeding  are  taken  up, 
and  the  enemies  and  diseases  of  poultry,  together 
with  insecticides  and  remedies  for  poultry,  are 
discussed  at  some  length.  The  various  methods 
of  poultry  judging  are  explained,  and  samples  of 
the  various  score  cards  shown.  The  census 
poultry  statistics,  including  the  number  of  fowls 
on  farms  in  the  United  States  and  the  production 
of  poultry  and  eggs  in  the  United  States,  are  of 
particular  interest  at  a  time  when  the  high  cost 
of  living  is  an  engrossing  topic  of  conversation, 

The  glossary  of  technical  terms  is  a  feature 
that  will  be  appreciated  by  poultry  fanciers,  as  it 
is  one  of  the  most  complete  glossaries  of  its  kind 
that  has  ever  been  compiled.  The  book  closes 
with  several  pages  of  miscellaneous  information, 
which  will  be  found  of  general  interest. 

This  handbook  was  prepared  under  the  personal 
supervision  of  Thomas  F.  McGrew,  Principal  of 
the  School  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  assisted  by 
Seth  W.  Shoemaker. 

INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS, 
SCRANTON,  PA. 

November,  1912. 


INDEX 


Accidents,  328. 

Acre,   Number  of  fowls  per. 

27. 

Age  of  fowls,  How  to  ascer- 
tain the,  225. 

Ailment,  Definition  of,  160. 
Alfalfa,  51. 
American  fowls,  190. 

Poultry  Association,  Mem- 
bership in,  184. 
specialty  clubs,  201. 
Standard     of     Perfection, 

186. 
Animal  foods,  52. 

meal,  52. 

Animals  destructive  to  poul- 
try, 157. 

Aniseed  powder,  146. 
Apothecaries'   fluid  measure, 

295. 

weight,  294. 
Arithmetic,  292. 
Artificial  brooding,  102. 
incubation,  86. 
respiration,  329. 
Ash,  34. 

Asiatic  fowls,  190. 
Associations,  Poultry,  180. 
Avoirdupois    pounds     in     a 

bushel,  295. 
weight,  293. 


Bands,     Identification,     212, 
215. 

Bantam  fowls,  196. 

fowls,  Standard  weights  of, 
207. 

Bantams,  Houses  for,  24. 

Barley,  43. 

Barred    Plymouth    Rock    fe- 
male, 58. 


Beans,  44. 

Beets,  47. 

Belgian  fowls,  191. 

Benzine,  149. 

Bins,  Capacities  of,  314. 

Birds  destructive  to  poultry. 

158. 

Black  Orpington,  121. 
Bladder,  Gall,  31. 
Bleeding,     Hemorrhage,     or, 

331 

Blood,  Dried,  53. 
Bluestone,  164. 
Board  measure,  311. 
Bone,  Cut  green,  53. 

meal,  53. 

Brahma  male,  Light,  46. 
Bran,  Corn,  41. 

Wheat,  39. 
Breeding,  140. 
Brickwork,  313. 
Broilers,  Classes  of,  136. 
Bronchitis,     167. 
Brood  coops,  99. 
Brooders,  22,  102. 

Operation  of,  105. 

Temperature  for,  105. 
Brooding,   Artificial,    102. 

Natural,  99. 

Points  in,    108. 

Troubles  in,   107. 
Broom  corn,  43. 
Buckwheat,  43. 

middlings,  44. 
Buhach,  146. 
Building  paper,  4. 
Bumblefoot,  170. 
Burns,  337. 
Buttermilk,  54. 


Cabbage,  48. 
Caeca,  30. 


INDEX 


Calcimining,  307. 

Calendar,  Poultryman's,  217. 

Camphor,  164. 

Canada  peas,  44. 

Canary  seed,  47. 

Canker,  166. 

Carbohydrates,  33. 

Carbolic  acid,  150. 

Carpeting,  310. 

Casks,  Gauging  of,  315. 

Castor  oil,  164. 

Catarrh,  166. 

Centigrade  table,  302. 

Charcoal,  55. 

Chick  food,  Mixtures  for,  62. 

Chickenpox,    170. 

Chicks,  Feeding  of  young,  61. 

Feeding   schedule   for,    63. 

Weaning  age  of,  101. 
Chop,  Hominy,  42. 
Circular  measure,  297. 
Cisterns,  Capacities  of,  314. 
Clover,  51. 
Coal,  315. 
Cobs,  Corn,  42. 
Cold  frames  in  yards,  28. 

storage  of  eggs,  120. 

storage  on  egg  prices,  In- 
fluence of,  259. 
Colds,  166. 

Comparison  score  card,  176. 
Concentrates,  34. 
Coops,  Brood,  99. 
Copper  sulphate,  164. 
Copperas,  164. 
Corn  bran,  41. 

Broom,  43. 

cobs,  42. 

Fodder,  51. 

Kafir,  42. 

Whole,  41. 
Cornell     rations    for    laying 

hens,  67. 

Correspondence,  323. 
Cottonseed  meal,  46. 
Cramming,  Machine,  75. 
Crate  fattening,  73. 
Creoline,  150,  165. 
Creosote,  148. 

fumes,  152. 
Crop,  30. 
Cross-breeding,   140,  142. 


g 


Cubic  measure,  293. 
D 

Dalmatian     insect     powder 

146. 

Decimal  score  card,  174. 
Diffusion  incubators,  90. 
Disease,  Definition  of,  160. 
Diseases  of  poultry,  160. 

Treatment  of,  162. 
Dislocations,  337. 
Dorking,  Silver-Gray,  132. 
Double  mating,  143. 
Douglas  mixture,  164. 
Dressing  of  fowls,  134. 
Dried  blood,  53. 
Dropping-boards,  13,  20. 
Drowned  persons,   Restorin 

of  apparently,  338. 
Dry  measure,  295. 
Ducks,  198. 

Feeding  of,  78. 

Standard  weights  of,  207. 
Duodenum,  30. 
Dutch  fowls,  192. 

E 

Egg  crop,  Percentage  of  loss 
of  total,  115. 

eating,  170. 

Fertilization  of  the,  83. 

prices,  129. 

production  as  indicated  by 
market  receipts,  253. 

production,    Monthly   rate 
of,  253. 

production  records,  116.  , 

production  to  season,  Rela- 
tion of,  118. 

production    Variations    in, 
116. 

quotations,  130. 

record,  Table  of  3-year,  116 

yield,  Fluctuation  of,  114. 
Eggs,  Cold  storage  of,  120. 

Composition  of,  109. 

Food  value  of,  109. 

for  hatching,  89. 

for  incubation,  88. 

Grades  of,  123. 

in  a  sitting,  Number  of,  85. 

Monthly  rate  of  marketing 
of,  253. 


INDEX 


Eggs,  Period  of  incubation  of, 

Feeding  schedule  for  chicks, 

84. 

63. 

Period  of  vitality  in,  84 

schedule  for  laying  hens,  65  . 

Pickling  of,  120. 

Trough,  74. 

Preservation  of,  120. 

Feeds,  Gluten  meals  and,  41. 

Production  of  poultry  and, 

Fertility  of  eggs,  Testing,  96. 

250. 

Fertilization  of  the  egg,  83. 

Standards  for,  122. 

First  aid  to  the  injured,  327. 

Table    of    composition    of, 

Fish,  54. 

110. 

Flaxseed,  45. 

Testing  fertility  of,  96. 
to    egg    production,    Rela- 

Flocks, Judging  of  farm,  177. 
Floor  materials,  5. 

tion  of  weight  of,  117. 

Flour,  40. 

Uses  of,  109. 

Fodder  corn,  51. 

Variations  in  prices  of,  253. 

Food,  Composition  of,  33. 

Washing  of,  113. 

Mixtures  for  chick,  62. 

Weight  of,  113. 

principles,  Uses  of,  35. 

Eggshells,  Color  of,  112. 
Electric  shock,  334. 

required  by  one  hen  in  a 
year,  Quantity  of,  64. 

Enemies  of  poultry,  143. 

value  of  eggs,  109. 

English  fowls,  192. 

Foods,  Animal,  52. 

money,  300. 

Cost  of  protein  in,  58. 

Epsom  salts,  164. 

Digestibility  of,  132. 

Grain,  38. 

F 

Green,  49. 

Fahrenheit  table,  302. 
Fainting,  328. 

per  quart,  Weight  of,  60. 
Poisonous,  56. 

Fats,  33. 

Poultry,  33. 

Fattening,  Crate,  73. 

Table  of  composition  and 

Range,  72. 

nutritive  ratio  of  green, 

rations,  76. 

50. 

Yard,  73. 

Table     of     percentage     of 

Feed  hoppers,  14. 

food  principles,  nutritive 

Feeding  100  hens  for  a  month, 

ratio,  and  manurial  value 

Cost  of,  64. 

of  poultry,  36. 

Funnel,  74. 

Vegetable,  47. 

of  ducks,  78. 

Fowl,  Proper  way  to  hold  a, 

of  farm  flocks,  70. 

226. 

of  fowls,  57. 

Fowls  per  acre,  Number,  27. 

of  fowls  during  molt,  71. 

Standard  weights  of,  205. 

of  fowls  in  crates,  73. 

Fractures,  335. 

of  fowls  in  fattening  yard, 

French  fowls,  193. 

73. 

Fryers,  136. 

of  geese,  80. 

Fume  insecticides,  152. 

of  guinea  fowls,  77. 
of  laying  hens,  64. 

G 

of  pheasants,  77. 

Gall  bladder,  31. 

of  pigeons,  81. 

Game  fowls,  194. 

of  poultry  for  market,  72. 

Gapes,  167. 

of  turkeys,  76. 

Gasoline,  149. 

of  wild  water  fowls,  81. 

Geese,  199. 

of  young  chicks,  61. 

Feeding  of,  80. 

INDEX 


Geese,  Standard    weights  of, 

208. 
German  fowls,  195. 

rape  seed,  47. 
Gizzard,  30. 
Glossary,  268. 
Gluten  meals  and  feeds,  41. 
Going  light,  167. 
Gout,  169. 
Grades  of  eggs,  123. 
Grain  foods,  38. 
Grains,  Miscellaneous,  42. 
Grass,  49. 
Green  foods,  49. 
Grit,  55. 
Guinea  fowls,  199. 

fowls,  Feeding  of,  77. 

fowls,  Standard  weights  of, 
208. 

H 

Hand  stuffing,  74. 

Hatching,  Eggs  for,  89. 

Hay,  315. 

Healing  powders,  165. 

Heart,  31. 

Heat,  301. 

Effects  of,  337. 

units,  301. 

Hemorrhage,  or  bleeding,  331. 
Hemp  seed,  46. 
Hens,  House  for  laying,  12. 
Homeopathic  remedies,  165. 
Hominy  chop,  42. 
Hoppers,  Feed,  14. 
Houdan,  138. 
House  for  laying  hens,  12. 

Open -front,  8. 
Houses  for  bantams,  24. 

Poultry,  2. 

Types  of  poultry,  8. 
Hover,  102. 
Hulled  oats,  40. 
Hulls,  Oat,  41. 
Hydrogen  peroxide,  165. 


Identification  bands,  212,  215. 
Inbreeding,  140,  141. 
Incubation,  Artificial,  86. 
.     Eggs  for,  88. 


Incubation,  Factors  influen- 
cing success  in,  95. 

Natural,  83. 

of  eggs,  Period  of,  84. 

Temperature  for,  92. 
Incubators,  89. 

and     hens,    Relative    effi- 
ciency of,  87. 

Diffusion,  90. 

Management  of,  92. 

Moisture  in,  93. 

Operation  of,  94. 

Radiation,  90. 

Ventilation  in,  94. 
Indian  Runner  drake,  221. 
Injuries,  328. 
Insect  powders,    Compound, 

147. 
Insecticides,  145. 

Application  of,  153. 
Insects  attacking  fowls,  144. 
Internal  organs  of  fowls,  29. 
Intestines,  30. 

Diseases  of,  167. 
Iodine,  165. 
Iron  sulphate,  164. 

Tincture  of,  165. 


Judging,  Methods  of,  171. 
of  farm  flocks,  177. 

K 

Kafir  corn,  42. 
Kerosene,  149. 
Kidneys,  31. 
Killing  of  parasites,  154. 
of  poultry,  137. 


Laying  hens,  Cornell  rations 
for,  67. 

hens,  Feeding  of,  64. 

hens,  Feeding  schedule  for, 
65. 

hens,  House  for,  12. 
Lean  meat,  52. 
Leg  weakness,  169. 
Legal  holidays,  320. 

weights  per  bushel,  229. 
Leghorns,  White,  147. 


INDEX 


Legs   and   feet,    Diseases   of, 

169. 

Letter  writing,  323. 
Lice,  144. 

killer,  Liquid,  151. 
Light  Brahma  male,  46. 
Lime,  Air-slaked,  147. 
Line  breeding,  140. 
Linear  measure,  292. 
Linseed  meal,  46. 
Liquid  insecticides,  147. 

insecticides,     Compound, 
151. 

measure,  294. 
Liver,  30. 

Long-ton  table,  294. 
Lumber  for  poultry  houses,  3. 
Lungs,  31. 

M 

Machine  cramming,  75. 
Mangels,  47. 

Market,   Feeding  of  poultry 
for,  72. 

poultry,  132. 

poultry,  Classes  of,  134. 

price  of  eggs,  129. 
Marketing  of  eggs,   Monthly 
rate  of,  253. 

of  fowls,  209. 

of  pigeons,  214. 
Markets  governing  egg  quota- 
tions, 130. 
Masonry,  312. 
Materials,  Floor,  5. 

for  side  walls,  4. 
Mating,  Methods  of,  142. 
Meal,  Animal,  52. 

Bone,  53. 

Cottonseed,  46. 

Linseed,  46. 

Peanut,  46. 

Meals  and  feeds,  Gluten,  41. 
Measures  of  angles  or  arcs, 
297. 

of  capacity,  294. 

of  extension,  292. 

of  money,  299. 

of  time,  296. 

of  volume,  306. 

of  weight,  293. 
Meat  and  meat  products,  52. 


Meat,  Lean,  52. 

scrap,  52. 

Tainted,  53. 

Mediterranean  fowls,  195. 
Metric  equivalents  of  pounds, 
feet,  etc.,  304. 

system  of  measures,  297. 
Middlings,  40. 

Buckwheat,  44. 
Milk,  54. 

and  milk  products,  Table  of 
composition  and  nutri- 
tive ratios  of,  55. 

emulsion,  150. 
Millet,  45. 

Mineral  matter,  34,  55. 
Minorca,  White,  159. 
Miscellaneous  bantams,  198. 

fowls,  195. 

tables,  303. 

Moisture  in  incubators,  93. 
Molt,  Feeding  of   fowls  dur- 
ing, 71. 

Morse's  maxims  of  treatment, 
162. 


N 
Natural  brooding,  99. 

incubation,  83. 
Nests,  15,  19. 

for  sitting  hens,  85. 
Nitrogen-free  extract,  33. 
Nursery,  102. 


Oat  hulls,  41. 
Oatmeal,  40. 
Oats,  Hulled,  40. 

Whole,  40. 

Official  score  card,  172. 
Oils,  33. 
Ointments,  165. 
Olive  oil,  164. 
Onions,  48. 
Open-front  house,  8. 
Organs  of  fowls,  Internal,  29. 
Orpington,  Black,  121. 
Ovaries,  32. 
Oviduct,  32. 
Ovisac,  32. 


INDEX 


Painting,  307. 
Pancreas,  31. 
Pans,  Water,  14,  19, 
Paper,  Building,  4. 
Papering,  307. 
Paraffin  oil,  165. 
Parasites     attacking     fowls, 
144. 

Effects  of,  143. 

Infestation  by,  143. 

Killing  of,  154. 

Reproduction  of,  144. 

Ridding  a  poultry  house  of, 

155. 
Peafowls,  199. 

Standard  weights  of,  208. 
Peanut  meal,  46. 
Peas,  44. 

Persian  insect  powder,  146. 
Petroleum,  149. 
Pheasants,  Feeding  of,  77. 
Pickling  of  eggs,  120. 
Pigeons,  Catching  and  hold- 
ing, 228. 

Feeding  of,  81. 

Marking  of,  214. 
Plastering,  307. 
Plucking  of  poultry,  138. 
Plymouth       Rock       female, 
Barred,  58. 

Rock  male,  White,  86. 
Poisonous  foods,  56. 
Polish  fowls,  195. 
Potatoes,  48. 

Poultry  and  eggs,  Production 
of,  250. 

Classes  of  market,  134. 

Diseases  of,  160. 

Enemies  of,  143. 

foods,  33. 

-house  construction,  2. 

houses,  2. 

houses,  Types  of,  8. 

Market,  132. 

prices,  139. 

raising,  1. 

-show  rules,  181. 

shows  and  associations,  180. 

statistics,  240. 
Powder  guns,  153. 

insecticides,  146. 


Prices  of  eggs,  Variations  in, 
253. 

Poultry,  139. 
Protein,  34. 

in  foods,  Cost  of,  58. 
Pyrethrum  powder,  146. 


B 


Radiation  incubators,  90. 
Range  fattening,  72. 
Rape  seed,  47. 
Rations,  Fattening,  76. 

for  hens  for  30  days,  68. 

for  farm  flocks,  70. 

for  fowls  during  molt,  71. 

for  laying  hens,  Cornell,  67. 
Rectum,  30. 

Remedies  for  poultry,  163. 
Respiration,  Artificial,  329. 
Restoring  of  apparently 

drowned  persons,  338. 
Rheumatism,  169. 
Rhinitis  tablets,  164. 
Rice,  45. 

Roasters,  Classes  of,  136. 
Roosts,  10,  14,  20. 
Roughage,  34. 
Roup,  166. 

Rules,  Poultry-show,  181. 
Rye,  43. 

S 

Salt,  56. 
Scaly  leg,  169. 
Score  card  for  farm  flock,  178. 

cards,  173. 
Scrap,  Meat,  52. 
Screenings,  Wheat,  39. 
Seed,  Canary,  47. 

Hemp,  46. 

Rape,  47. 

Sorghum,  45. 

Sunflower,  45. 

Seeds  and  their  by-products, 
38. 

Miscellaneous,  42. 
Shingles,  5. 
Shock,  Electric,  334. 

Traumatic,  330. 
Shorts,  40. 

Show  rules,  Poultry,  181. 
Shows,  Poultry,  180. 


INDEX 


Side   walls,  Materials   for,  4. 
Silver-Gray  Dorking,  132. 
Laced  Wyandotte,  140. 
Single  mating,  142. 
Sitting  hen,  Selection  of,  84, 

hens,  Nests  for,  85. 
Skim-milk,  54. 
Soap  emulsion,  150- 
Sorghum  seed,  45. 
Soybeans,  44. 

Specialty  clubs,  American ,201. 
Spleen,  31. 
Sprains,  337. 
Sprayers,  153. 
Spring  broilers,  136. 
Squab  broilers,  136. 

Proper  way  to  hold  a,  227. 
Square  measure,  292. 
Standard    and    non -standard 
varieties  of  poultry,  189. 
weights  of  poultry,  204. 
Standards  for  eggs,  122. 
Statistics,  Poultry,  240. 
Stavesacre  seed  powder,  147. 
Storage  of  eggs,  Cold,  120. 
Strain  breeding,  140,  141. 
Stuffing,  Hand,  74. 
Sulphur  fumes,  152. 
Sunflower  seed,  45. 
Surveyor's    square    measure, 
293. 

T 

Tableof  3-year  egg  record,  11 6. 
of  average  price  of  eggs  for 

1911,  266. 
of  average  value  per  fowl, 

249. 

of    breeds    and     standard 
and    non-standard    vari- 
eties of  poultry,  190. 
of  centigrade  and  Fahren- 
heit degrees,  302. 
of    comparative    efficiency 
of  incubators  and  hens, 87. 
of  comparison  of  monthly 
average   prices   of    eggs, 

of  comparison  of  poultry 
and  other  foods,  133. 

of  composition  and  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  green  foods, 
50. 


Table     of    composition    and 

nutritive  ratios  of  milk 

and  milk  products,   55. 

-  of  composition  of  eggs,  110. 

of  composition  of  fowl  and 
egg,  59. 

of  cost  of  protein  in  poul- 
try foods,  59. 

of  digestible  matter  in 
wheat,  39. 

of  distance  of  sun  time  be- 
tween New  York  City 
and  other  parts  of  the 
wTorld,  305. 

of  distances,  306. 

of  feeding  standards  for 
young  chicks,  61. 

of  fowls  and  eggs  pro- 
duced on  farms  in  1909, 
254. 

of  legal  weights  per  bushel, 
230. 

of  loss  in  dressing  different 
breeds  of  fowls,  135. 

of  loss  in  dressing  fowls,  134 

of  market  price  of  eggs, 
129. 

of  market  value  of  fowls  at 
different  stages,  139. 

of  monthly  egg  records 
showing  absence  of  uni- 
form production.  119. 

of  monthly  production, 
marketing,  and  prices  of 
eggs,  261. 

of  .New  York  and  London 
egg  quotations,  131. 

of  number  and  value  of 
fowls  on  farms.  244. 

of  per  cent,  distribution  of 
fowls,  248. 

of  percentage  of  food  prin- 
ciples, nutritive  ratio, 
and  manurial  value  of 
poultry  foods,  36. 

of  percentage  of  loss  of  total 
egg  crop,  115. 

of  postal  distances  and 
time  between  New  York 
and  other  cities,  316, 
318. 

of  poultry  on  farms,  242. 


INDEX 


Table  of  quantity  of  food 
required  by  one  hen  in  a 
year,  64. 

of  receipts  of  eggs  at  seven 
leading  markets,  1891- 
1911,  257. 

of    relation    of    weight  _  of 
eggs  to  egg  production, 
117. 
of     standard     weights     of 

poultry,  205. 

of  standards  for  eggs,  123. 

of   time   required   to   raise 

broilers  and  roasters,  136. 

of  weight  of  poultry  foods 

per  quart,  60. 
of  wholesale  prices  of  eggs, 

1896-1911,  262. 
Tables,  Miscellaneous,  303. 
of  weights   and  measures, 

292. 

Technical  terms,  268. 
Temperature,  303. 
for  brooders,  105. 
for  incubation,  92. 
Thermometers,  91. 
Thermostat,  92. 
Tincture  of  iron,  165. 
Tobacco  dust,  146. 

fumes,  152. 
Toe  markings,  209. 

punches,  211. 
Tonics,  165. 
Traumatic  shock,  330. 
Treatment  of  diseases,  162. 
Trough  feeding,  74. 
Troy  weight,  294. 
Turkeys,  200. 
Feeding  of,  76. 
Standard  weights  of,  208. 
Turnips,  47. 
Turpentine,  150,  165. 

U 

United  States  money,  299. 


Varieties  of  poultry,  Stand- 
ard and  non-standard, 
189. 

Vegetable  foods,  47. 
tops,  49. 

Vent,  30. 

Ventilation,  7. 
in  incubators,  94. 

Villi,  30. 

Vitality  in  eggs,  Period  of,  84. 

W 

Walls,  Materials  for  side,  4. 
Water,  33. 

fowls,  Feeding  of  wild,  81. 

pans,  14,  19. 

Weaning  age  of  chicks,  101. 
Weights  of  poultry,  Standard, 
204. 

per  bushel,  Legal,  229. 
Wheat  bran,  39. 

screenings,  39. 

Table  of  digestible  matter 
in,  39. 

Whole,  38. 
White  Leghorns,  147. 

Minorca,  159. 

Plymouth  Rock  male,  86. 

Wyandotte,  142. 
Whitewash,  151. 
Winter  feeding,  Green  crops 

for,  52. 
Wounds,  335. 

Wyandotte,  Silver  Laced, 
140. 

White,  142. 


Yard  fattening,  73. 
Yards,  Cold  frames  in,  28. 
Purpose  and  size  of,  26. 


Zenoleum,  165. 


The  Poultry  man's 
Handbook 


POULTRY  RAISING 

Poultry  and  poultry  products  add  to  the  wealth  of 
the  county  each  year  more  than  wheat,  cotton,  or  gold. 
Poultry  can  .be  kept  successfully  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  world  and  is  the  most  profitable  kind  of  live- 
stock that  can  be  kept.  A  few  fowls  can  be  kept  by 
the  intensive  system  in  very  confined  quarters,  and 
enough  to  provide  poultry  and  eggs  for  a  small  family 
can  be  raised  profitably  in  a  corner  of  a  small  town  lot; 
more  can  be  kept  on  a  little  additional  space. 

An  attractive  feature  of  poultry  raising  is  that  fowls 
may  be  kept  for  pleasure  as  well  as  profit.  A  fancier 
may  use  the  best  of  all  the  fowls  he  raises  for  exhibi- 
tion, sell  a  few  of  equal  or  almost  equal  quality  to 
others  for  the  same  purpose,  sell  eggs  from  pens  of 
mated  fowls  for  hatching,  and  the  culls  of  the  flock 
will  be  the  best  of  market  poultry.  At  the  same  time 
the  flock  will  furnish  a  large  part  of  the  egg  and  meat 
diet  for  a  small  family. 

Poultry  farming  can  be  followed  by  almost  any  one 
who  has  a  small  piece  of  ground  and  a  few  dollars  to 
begin  with.  The  business  should  be  begun  in  a  small 
way  and  built  up  gradually.  Thousands  of  men  and 
women  are  becoming  independent  each  year  from  a  be- 
ginning with  a  little  piece  of  ground  on  which  they 
raise  poultry  and  vegetables.  On  a  small  town  lot 
50  ft.  x  100  ft.  almost  enough  vegetables  may  be  raised 
to  provide  for  a  family  for  a  year,  and  at  the  same 


2  POULTRY  HOUSES 

time   a   small   enclosure   for  poultry   may   be   built   on   a 
corner   of   the    lot. 

It  will  be  an  advantage,  in  raising  vegetables  and 
poultry  on  a  small  piece  of  ground,  to  practice  migratory 
yarding.  This  consists  in  moving  the  house  and  yards 
from  one  part  of  the  ground  to  another  each  year.  In 
this  way  the  space  occupied  by  the  poultry  one  year 
will  be  highly  fertilized  for  the  growing  of  vegetables 
the  next  year,  and  the  fowls  will  be  benefited  in  health 
and  vigor  from  having  new,  sweet  earth  to  travel  over 
and  scratch  in. 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


POULTRY-HOUSE    CONSTRUCTION 

To  maintain  the  health  of  fowls,  their  houses  and 
runways  should  be  free  from  dampness.  Ground  having 
a  surface  that  naturally  sheds  water  away  from  the 
buildings  and  yards  is  preferable.  The  best  kind  of 
soil  on  which  to  build  a  poultry  house  is  a  sandy  loam 
having  a  sandy  or  a  gravelly  subsoil.  Both  the  soil  and 
the  subsoil  should  be  deep  enough  to  permit  perfect 
drainage.  If  the  wash  of  the  soil  is  toward  a  poultry 
house,  ditches  and  banks  should  be  built  to  turn  the 
water  away  from  the  buildings  and  yards. 

Poultry  houses  should  be  placed  so  that  they  will 
receive  all  the  sunlight  possible.  In  the  northern 
hemisphere  they  are  preferably  placed  on  hillsides  that 
slope  gradually  toward  the  south;  in  the  southern  hem- 
isphere the  best  exposure  is  exactly  opposite.  Poultry 
yards  should  preferably  extend  away  from  the  building 
in  a  southerly  direction. 

The  natural  demands  of  a  hen  are  about  the  same  as 
those  of  a  dairy  cow,  except  those  due  to  the  difference 
resulting  from  size.  The  hen  varies,  according  to  the 
breed,  from  9  to  12  in.  in  height,  and  a  fowl  should 
furnish  enough  natural,  or  body,  heat  on  the  average 


POULTRY  HOUSES  3 

to  make  comfortable  a  space  2  ft.   long,  2  ft.  wide,   and 

7  ft.   high.     The  height  could  be  reduced,   but   a  height 
of  7  ft.  is  necessary  for  the  convenience  of  the  attendant. 

In  constructing  houses  for  breeds  of  medium  or  small 
size,  such  as  Leghorns,  Minorcas,  or  Bantams,  it  is 
well  to  allow  4  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  for  each  fowl.  For 
example,  fifteen  fowls  of  this  kind  should  have  60  sq. 
ft.  of  floor  space,  and  twenty-five  fowls,  100  sq.  ft. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  floor  space  of  5  sq.  ft.  should 
always  be  allowed  for  a  Plymouth  Rock  or  a  Wyandotte, 
and  one  of  6  sq.  ft.  for  a  Cochin  or  a  Brahma.  Thus, 
while  a  10'  x  12'  building,  which  provides  120  sq.  ft.  of 
floor  space,  is  sufficiently  large  for  thirty  Leghorns,  it 
will  house  only  twenty-four  Plymouth  Rocks  or  Wyan- 
dottes,  or  only  twenty  Cochins  or  Brahmas. 

So  far  as  economy  of  construction  is  concerned,  it  is 
generally  advisable  to  make  a  house  as  nearly  square 
as  possible.  In  poultry  houses,  however,  the  advantage 
of  the  square  house  is  outweighed  by  other  considera- 
tions, such  as  good,  natural  lighting  and  ventilation, 
which  can  be  obtained  in  large  houses  only  by  making 
them  relatively  long  and  narrow.  They  should  not  be 
made  too  narrow,  however.  Under  ordinary  conditions, 
the  width  should  not  be  less  than  12  ft.,  as  floor  space 
in  narrow  buildings  is  costly.  For  example,  a  building 

8  ft.  x  100  ft.  would  cost  at  least  three-fourths  as  much 
as  one  16  ft.  x  100  ft.,  and  would  furnish  only  one-half 
the  floor  space.    If  large  houses  are  required,  they  should 
be  made  from  16  to  20  ft.   in  width  and  long  enough  to 
shelter  the  desired  number  of  fowls. 

Lumber  for  Poultry  Houses.— For  light  construction, 
2"x2"  uprights  should  be  used  with  a  2"x4"  sill.  This 
kind  of  construction  will  answer  for  small  or  individual 
buildings  or  for  any  style  of  poultry  building  that  is  not 
to  be  permanent,  provided  it  is  strong  enough  to  bear 
the  weight  of  the  roof  when  there  is  a  heavy  fall  of 
snow  on  it.  A  much  more  substantial  framing,  how- 
ever, can  be  made  of  2"  x  4"  studs  and  a  4"  x  6''  sill. 
Either  barn  boards,  beveled  siding,  or  jointed  flooring 


4  POULTRY  HOUSES 

having  a  6-in.  face  should  be  used  for  siding.  If  barn 
boards  are  used,  they  should  always  be  dressed  on  one 
side,  the  same  as  the  siding  or  flooring,  so  as  to  provide 
an  even  outer  surface  to  the  building.  Either  pine, 
hemlock,  or  poplar  lumber  is  good  for  framing  and 
siding;  pine  or  cypress  should  be  used  for  the  flooring. 
In  choosing  lumber  for  poultry  houses,  it  is  always  a 
good  plan  to  select  the  kind  of  lumber  that  is  least  ex- 
pensive, provided  it  will  make  a  perfectly  air-tight  con- 
struction on  three  sides  to  exclude  drafts. 

Materials  for  Side  Walls.— In  very  cold  climates, 
double  siding  with  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  tar  paper 
between  is  sometimes  laid  on  the  north  wall  of  poultry 
houses.  It  is  not  unusual  to  place  tar  paper  beneath 
the  one  layer  of  siding.  In  such  cases,  however,  the 
surface  of  the  paper  not  only  acts  as  a  gathering  place 
for  dust  and  dirt  but  also  serves  to  harbor  insect  vermin. 
Such  condition  may  be  greatly  prevented  by  sheathing 
the  interior  with  flooring  or  by  plastering  the  walls  n.nc* 
ceilings.  Brick  or  cement  can  be  used  for  the  side 
walls,  but,  when  used,  it  is  difficult,  without  the  aid  of 
artificial  heat,  to  keep  the  interior  dry.  Dampness,  as 
has  been  stated,  is  always  undesirable  for  poultry.  The 
use  of  lumber  gives  more  satisfactory  interior  conditions 
and  is  always  preferable;  brick  and  cement  walls  have 
not  proved  satisfactory. 

Building  Paper.— The  use  of  building  paper  between 
walls  and  floors  is  highly  recommended,  because  it  is 
a  good  non-conductor  of  heat  and  a  good  protector  from 
cold  and  drafts.  Many  kinds  of  paper,  ranging  from 
tar  paper  to  the  heavier  grades'  of  building  paper,  are 
used  for  this  purpose.  Any  of  these  papers  will  last  a 
long  time  if  they  are  carefully  laid  against  a  reasonably 
smooth  surface.  Tar  paper  forms  a  protection  from 
insects,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  often  selected.  Three- 
ply  roofing  paper  or  three-ply  roofing  felt  is  the  cheapest 
of  these  materials  that  can  be  used  to  advantage  for 
the  roof  or  the  side  walls,  and  if  it  is  of  good  quality 
and  properly  laid,  it  will  last  for  many  years.  When 


POULTRY  HOUSES  5 

improperly  laid  and  of  a  poor  quality,  however,  it  is 
not  desirable.  Roofing  felt  must  be  laid  close  and  tight 
to  the  roof  or  side  walls  by  tarring  the  edges,  lapping 
them,  and  fastening  them  down  well  with  nails  and 
caps  so  that  no  wind,  water,  or  snow  can  enter  the 
house.  Every  crack  or  opening  in  the  roof  becomes  a 
catch-basin  for  dampness  instead  of  a  protection  from  it. 

All  kinds  of  roofing  papers  will  prove  to  be  more 
satisfactory  if  they  are  laid  with  hot  tar  or  some  liquid 
preparation  that  will  cause  the  paper  to  adhere  to  the 
boards.  In  addition  to  the  liquid  preparation,  nails  with 
tin  caps  must  be  used  to  hold  the  paper  tight  and  firm 
in  position,  as  just  explained.  Nothing  less  than  a  2-in. 
lap  of  one  piece  of  paper  over  the  other  should  be 
allowed. 

Shingles.— A  good  covering  for  poultry  buildings  may 
be  made  of  shingles.  They  may  be  laid  on  strip  sheath- 
ing, which  is  usually  made  of  boards  a  foot  wide  and 
an  inch  thick,  or  on  roofing  lath,  which  is  not  nearly 
so  expensive  as  the  close  sheathing.  If  good  shingles 
are  used  and  the  roof  is  properly  laid,  it  should  do 
service  as  long  as  the  building  lasts.  The  life  of  a 
shingle  roof  may  be  prolonged  by  giving  the  roof  a 
steep  pitch.  If  the  pitch  is  steep,  the  roof  will  drain 
more  quickly  and  the  material  will  be  less  likely  to 
become  water  soaked.  In  this  way,  the  danger  of  its 
destruction  through  mold  or  decay  is  lessened.  If,  how- 
ever, the  shingles  are  of  poor  quality  and  turn  up  at 
the  ends,  snow  and  rain  will  get  into  the  poultry  house. 

Floor  Materials.— Floors  made  of  dirt  may  be  used  in 
poultry  houses,  provided  the  drainage  is  good  and  there 
is  little  danger  from  rats.  Damp  clay  is  commonly  used 
in  making  dirt  floors.  This  material  should  be  well 
tamped,  moistened,  and  then  tamped  again  until  level, 
hard,  and  smooth.  Floors  made  in  this  way  can  be 
kept  in  a  sanitary  condition  for  a  long  time  by  sprin- 
kling them  with  fresh,  dry  dirt  or  clean  sand  each  time 
that  the  house  is  swept  or*1  cleaned.  Sifted  coal  ashes 
mixed  with  wet  clay  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  ashes 
2 


8 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


and  2  parts  clay,  and  well  tamped  with  a  heavy  tamper, 
also  make  a  very  good  floor.  A  tamper  can  be  made  by 
fitting  a  round  handle  into  a  block  of  wood.  The  block 
should  be  about  6  or  8  in.  square  and  a  foot  long,  and 
the  handle  about  3  ft.  long  and  ll/2  in.  in  diameter. 
A  hole  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  in.  should  be  bored  into  the 
center  of  one  end  of  the  block  by  means  of  a  IJ^-in. 
auger  and  the  handle  then  driven  into  place. 

Floors  made  of  boards  laid  on  2"  x  4"  joists  set  on  edge 
and  filled  between  with  dirt  are  soon  undermined  by 
rats.  When  using  boards,  it  is  well  to  fill  in  between 
the  joists  with  cement  filling  or  to  cover  them  beneath 
the  floor  with  close,  galvanized-wire  cloth  or  with  steel 
lathing,  to  keep  out  rats.  If  floors  are  raised  far  enough 
above  the  ground  to  permit  dogs  and  cats  to  go  beneath 
them,  there  will  be  scarcely  any  danger  from  rats. 
Elevating  the  board  floor  above  the  ground  also  prevents 
to  a  limited  extent  the  expansion  and  contraction  that 
is  caused  by  alternate  damp  and  dry  condi- 
tions. A  board  floor  should  be  made  of  per- 
fectly dry,  well-seasoned,  tongued-and-grooved 
lumber,  with  the  edges  laid  smooth  and  level. 
Underneath  the  floor  should  be  placed  a 
layer  of  three-ply  tar  paper,  and  the  tongue 
and  groove  of  the  flooring  should  be  smeared 
with  hot  tar  before  the  boards  are  nailed  into 
place.  This  practice  is  often  not  followed; 
nevertheless,  the  use  of  tar  for  this  purpose  always  pays. 
Well-laid  concrete  floors  are  decidedly  the  best  for 
all  kinds  of  poultry  buildings.  Their  large  cost  makes 
them  prohibitive  in  some  instances,  but  since  most 
farmers  at  the  present  time  can  do  plain  concreting, 
they  are  used  extensively.  Concrete  floors  should  con- 
sist of  four  layers,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration. The  bottom  layer  should  be  made  up  of  stones, 
and  the  next  layer  of  about  8  in.  of  coal  cinders  or 
gravel.  On  top  of  this  to  within  1  in.  of  the  top  should 
be  placed  3  or  4  in.  of  concrete.  The  top  layer  of  the 
floor  should  consist  of  cement  and  sand— 1  part  of  good 


POULTRY  HOUSES  1 

cement  to  4  parts  of  sand.  In  making  concrete  floors, 
each  layer  of  filling  as  completed  should  be  moistened 
and  well  tamped.  The  color  may  be  darkened  with 
lampblack  if  desired.  A  practice  that  has  recently  come 
into  use  is  to  coat  the  concrete  with  hot  coal  tar  just 
before  the  layer  6f  cement  is  put  down.  On  top  of  the 
hot  tar  is  laid  three-ply  felt,  and  on  top  .of  this  is 
applied  another  coating  of  hot  tar.  The  cement  finish  is 
then  laid  over  the  layers  of  tar  and  felt,  which  prevent 
cold  or  dampness  from  coming  up  through  the  cement. 
If  desired,  the  top  covering  of  cement  can  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  the  concrete  filled  in  and  tamped  until 
the  moisture,  or  thin  portion,  is  brought  to  the  surface. 
When  dry,  concrete  tamped  in  this  manner  furnishes  a 
fairly  smooth  floor,  but  not  such  a  perfectly  level  nor 
smooth  one  as  can  be  obtained  with  cement  and  sand. 

Good  concrete  can  be  made  of  5  parts  of  sand,  2  parts 
of  gravel,  and  1  part  of  cement.  Portland  cement  is 
preferable.  The  gravel,  or  coal  ashes,  whichever  is 
used  in  making  the  second  layer,  should  be  moistened 
and  well  tamped.  This  kind  of  a  floor  is  a  perfect 
protection  against  rats. 

If  the  concrete  floor  is  laid  prior  to  the  construction 
of  the  building,  it  should  extend  about  1  ft.  outside  of  the 
ground  framework,  and  the  building  should  be  set  on 
top  of  sills  that  have  been  laid  in  the  cement.  Concrete 
floors  are  rough  and  hard  and  are  cold  in  winter.  For 
these  reasons,  a  covering  of  straw  should  be  kept  upon 
the  floor;  also,  the  roosts  should  be  set  close  to  the 
floor  so  that  the  fowls  when  leaving  them  will  not  light 
heavily  upon  their  feet. 

When  cost  need  not  be  considered,  asphalt,  such  as  is 
used  for  paving,  may  be  used  for  the  top  coat.  A  floor 
made  of  asphalt  will  be  neither  so  hard  nor  so  cold  as 
one  made  of  cement. 

Ventilation.— One  of  the  best  ways  of  ventilating  a 
poultry  house  is  to  use  muslin  or  cotton-cloth  windows. 
These  windows  are  made  by  stretching  the  cloth  over  a 
frame  made  to  fit  the  window  openings.  The  free  passage 


8  POULTRY  HOUSES 

of  air  through  the  cloth  ventilates  the  house  and  pre- 
vents dampness.  In  winter,  the  temperature  inside  the 
house  with  cloth  windows  averages  considerably  higher 
than  that  of  the  outside  air.  Careful  tests  made  at 
midnight  show  that  while  the  temperature  of  a  house 
with  cloth  windows  was  6  degrees  and  that  of  a  house 
with  glass  windows  14  degrees  above  zero,  the  outside 
temperature  was  4  degrees  below  zero.  Although  the 
house  with  glass  windows  was  8  degrees  warmer  than 
the  house  with  the  muslin  front,  the  advantage  in 
temperature  was  more  than  balanced  by  the  dampness 
with  which  it  was  accompanied. 

Cloth  windows  promote  the  free  circulation  of  air, 
which  frees  the  interior  of  the  house  from  dampness  and 
unsanitary,  unnatural  conditions.  The  fowls  within  the 
poultry  house  that  is  ventilated  by  means  of  cloth 
windows  have  all  the  advantages  of  living  in  the  open 
air  and  are  sheltered  from  the  dangers  of  such  a  life. 
Judgment,  however,  must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of 
cloth  fronts,  for  if  there  is  more  cloth  front  to  the 
house  than  is  needed,  the  difference  between  the  house 
temperature  and  the  outside  temperature  will  be  less 
than  that  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  paragraph.  Not 
so  much  open  space  is  necessary  in  houses  in  the  far 
North  as  for  those  in  warmer  localities. 


TYPES   OF  POULTRY   HOUSES 

HOUSES    WITH    OPEN    FRONTS 

In  Fig.  1  is  shown  one  type  of  open-front  house  that 
may  be  used  in  mild  climates.  This  house  is  12  ft.  wide 
and  20  ft.  deep,  and  provides  240  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space, 
or  sufficient  room  for  about  sixty  fowls.  It  is  built  low 
in  front — about  3  or  4  ft.  high  in  the  clear — and  is  7  ft. 
high  in  the  rear.  The  double-slant  roof  provides  suf- 
ficient height  for  the  interior,  and  at  the  same  time  has 
a  small  amount  of  open  space  overhead.  The  front  of 
the  house  is  not  closed  more  than  is  shown  in  the 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


9 


illustration,  except  in  very  cold  weather,  when  frames 
covered  with  muslin  cloth  may  be  used  inside  the  wire 
screen.  The  wire  screen  and  the  screen  door  protect 
the  poultry  from  dogs  and  other  animals.  The  screen 
door  in  front  shouljl  be  left  open  during  the  day,  but  it 
should  be  kept  closed  at  night.  Air  passes  through  the 
open  front  into  the  whole  house.  The  door  at  the  side 
is  for  the  attendant's  use,  and  should  be  covered  with 
heavy  paper  or  boards  during  the  winter  months.  The 
house,  being  practically  air-tight,  except  in  front,  will 
be  free  from  drafts,  or  currents  of  air,  and  the  tem- 
perature inside  will  differ  very  little  from  that  outdoors; 


also,  the  interior  will  be  dry.  The  windows,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  house,  should  be  kept  open  during  hot 
weather,  but  should  always  be  closed  when  it  is  damp, 
cool,  or  cold. 

The  fresh-air  house,  being  of  low,  narrow  construction, 
like  a  cave,  is  warmer  naturally  than  a  higher  and 
narrower  house  with  an  open  front;  notwithstanding 
this,  it  will  be  scarcely  12  degrees  warmer  inside  of  a 
fresh-air  house  during  a  cold  night  than  it  is  outdoors. 
The  advantage  derived  from  the  use  of  these  houses  is 
the  close  approach  to  natural  conditions  in  a  roosting 
place  for  the  fowls,  although  when  roosting  inside  of  a 
house  of  this  kind,  they  are  more  sheltered  from  the 
elements  than  when  roosting  in  the  open  air.  The 


10 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


roosting  place  r,  as   shown  in  the  floor  plan,   Fig.  2,   is 
far    back    from    the    open    front,    and    even    if    the    wind 

blows  directly  into 
the  open  front,  very 
little  of  it  will  pass 
into  the  building,  as 
there  are  no  open- 
ings elsewhere  to 
form  a  draft.  What 
influence  the  wind 
has  is  a  benefit, 

since  it  drives  what 

FIG.  2  warmth   there   is   in 

the    building   to   the 

rear,  and  not  through  the  house  and  out  of  the  other  end. 
The  nest  boxes  n  are  located  on  both  sides  of  the  house. 
In  Fig.  3  is  shown  another  type  of  open-front  house 
suitable  for  colder  climates  than  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  the  openings  being  covered  partly  with  cloth  and 
partly  with  glass.  This  kind  of  poultry  house  is  most 
favorably  considered  at  present,  but  time  only  can  tell 
whether  or  not  it  will  prove  to  be  the  best.  It  is  a 
two-room  house,  but  the  same  general  plan  can  be  fol- 


FIG.  3 

lowed  in  constructing  a  long  house  having  any  number 
of  rooms.    The  house  shown  is  6^2  ft.  high  in  the  front 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


11 


and  the  rear,  9  ft.  high  in  the  center,  12  ft.  wide,  and 
24  ft.  long.  In  front,  near  each  end  is  a  sash  and 
glass  window,  and  between  these  windows  are  two 
cloth-covered  frames.  Each  room  is  12  ft.  square,  and 
has  one  window  opening  that  is  closed  with  glass  and 
one  that  is  closed  with  cloth.  Below  each  glass  window 
is  a  smaller  hinged-sash  and  glass  window.  This  low- 
down  window  permits  the  sun  to  shine  on  the  floor 
close  to  the  front  of  the  house,  and  also  serves  as  an 
opening  through  which  the  fowls  may  pass.  The  frames 


FIG.  4 

on  which  the  cloth  is  fastened  are  hinged  at  the  top  of 
the  opening  so  as  to  turn  up  inside  against  the  roof, 
where  they  are  fastened  when  not  needed  to  close  the 
window  openings.  The  large  openings  are  covered  on 
the  outside  with  galvanized-wire  poultry  netting.  The 
floor  may  be  any  one  of  the  several  kinds  previously 
mentioned;  preference,  however,  is  always  given  to  a 
well-laid  cement  floor. 

The  interior  arrangement  of  this  open-front  house  is 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  rooms  are  separated  by  the  lumber 
partition  d.  The  dropping-board  is  shown  at  p,  and  the 


12  POULTRY  HOUSES 

roosts  r  are  located  8  in.  above  it.  In  the  rear  and 
above  the  roosts  is  a  shelter  e,  which  forms  a  hood 
about  the  roost.  The  air  circulates  about  the  roosting 
place,  behind  this  shelter,  and  in  between  the  studding. 
The  interior  of  the  roosting  place  is  ventilated  by  the 
opening  v.  Both  ends  of  the  roosting  place  must  be 
closed,  as  shown  at  the  end  g.  The  curtain  /  may  be 
turned  down  over  the  front  of  the  roosts  to  the  level 
of  the  top  of  the  roosts,  leaving  an  open  space  between 
the  lower  edge  of  the  curtain  frame  and  the  board  p. 
When  the  curtain  is  down,  the  ventilator  v  in  the 
top  of  the  shelter  should  be  open.  The  frame  covered 
with  cloth,  as  shown  at  c,  is  used  to  close  the  window 
opening,  as  previously  described.  The  nest  boxes  « 
are  placed  1  ft.  from  the  partition,  so  as  to  permit 
the  hens  to  get  on  the  nests  from  the  rear. 

HOUSE  FOR  LAYING  HENS 

Although  fresh-air  houses  may  be  cold  during  the 
winter  months,  on  account  of  their  dryness  they  are 
well  adapted  for  laying  hens.  Many  types  of  open- 


front  houses  are  used.  The  size  of  the  houses  in  the 
colony  system,  if  that  system  is  practiced,  depends,  of 
course,  on  the  number  of  fowls  to  be  provided  for.  A 
large  number  of  hens  may  be  housed  and  cared  for 
more  economically  in  large  pens  than  in  small  ones. 
The  one-room  open-front  house  is  especially  adapted 
for  farm  flocks  of  poultry.  The  house  shown  in 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


13 


Fig  5  is  40  ft.  long,  16  ft.  wide,  9  ft.  high  in  front,  6 
ft.  high  in  the  rear,  and  furnishes  ample  accommodations 
for  130  fowls,  although  160  fowls  of  the  smaller  breeds 


I       Im 


Fin 


I       Im 


FIG.  6 

can  be  safely  kept  in  this  house.  This  house  may  be 
made  of  any  length.  A  house  of  this  type  100  ft. 
long  will  be  suitable  for  a  flock  of  400  to  500  Leghorn 


FIG.  7 

laying  hens,  the  exact  number  varying  with  the  number 
of  days  in  succession  the  fowls  must  be  kept  indoors 
during  cold  or  wet  weather.  The  house  has  four  glass 


14 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


windows  alternating  with  three  openings,  each  4  ft. 
high  and  5  ft.  long.  These  openings  are  provided 
with  two  muslin-covered  frames  that  hang  from  the 
top  and  which  swing  inwards.  To  prevent  drafts  on 
the  fowls  at  night  in  long  houses  of  this  type,  partitions 
are  built  reaching  from  the  floor  to  the  roof  and  extend- 
ing from  the  rear  wall  to  a  point  about  2  ft.  in  front  of 
the  roost  poles.  In  a  house  10  ft.  long  three  such  par- 
titions will  be  sufficient. 

The  foundation  for  the  house  and  the  floor  are  made 
of  cement.  The  foundation  should  be  made  so  as  to 
extend  at  least  1  ft.  beyond  the  house  line.  After  the 
base  beams  have  been  laid,  the  cement  floor  may 
be  made  inside  of  them.  The  floor  inside  the  house 
should  be  at  least  6  in.  higher  than  the  surrounding 
ground. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  floor  plan  of  the  house  and  Fig.  7 
shows  an  interior  view.  The  roosts  are  shown  at  r, 

feed  hopper  at  h,  the 
water  pans  at  w,  and 
the  nests  at  n,  where 
they  are  easily 
cleaned.  The  interior 
equipment  should  be 
so  made  that  it  can 
easily  be  kept  in  a 
sanitary  condition. 
The  nests  are  located 
preferably  near  the 
windows.  The  i  n- 
terior  of  the  house  is 
equipped  with  refer- 
ence to  speedy  clean- 
ing and  proper  sani- 
tation; all  equipment 
can  be  taken  out  of 
the  house.  The  ceiling  and  walls  can  be  brushed  and 
sprayed  to  insure  against  the  accumulation  of  insect 
vermin. 


FIG.  8 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


15 


Fig.  8  shows  in  detail  the  construction  of  the  nests. 
They  are  made  of  light  lumber  and  are  fastened  to  the 
wall  with  iron  hooks,  thus  being  readily  removed  for 
cleaning.  Each  nest  must  not  be  less  than  12  in. 
square;  the  alighting  board  a  is  8  in.  wide  for 
American  breeds  and  6  in.  wide  for  smaller  breeds. 
For  Leghorns,  three  tiers  of  nests  may  be  made,  and 
two  tiers  for  other  breeds.  There  should  be  an  open 
space  at  least  10  in.  in  height  below  the  nests.  In 
using  the  nests,  the  hens  alight  first  on  the  board  a 
and  then  pass  through  the  opening  into  the  nests,  the 
eggs  being  gathered  through  the  doors  b.  By  using 
this  kind  of  nest,  the  eggs  are  kept  out  of  the  hen's 
sight,  thereby  practically  preventing  the  formation  of 
the  egg-eating  habit. 

HOUSES  FOR  SMALL  INTENSIVE  POULTRY  FARM 

In  Fig.  9  is  shown  a  perspective  view  of  a  small 
house,  with  portable  yard  y  attached,  admirably  adapted 
for  use  in  an  intensive  poultry  establishment  on 
account  of  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  cared  for. 
This  house  was  designed  originally  for  a  conditioning 


FIG.  9 


coop  and  may  be  considere'd  a  modern  development 
of  the  small  poultry  house,  all  the  requirements  for 
the  health  of  fowls  under  all  climatic  conditions  having 
been  carefully  considered. 


16 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


17 


When  houses  of  this  kind  are  used  in  an  intensive 
system,  brood  coops  are  also  provided,  and  the  houses 
are  set  with  sufficient  space  between  them  to  allow 
each  to  be  moved  to  the  front  or  rear  or  to  the  side 
.on  fresh  ground,  sp  that  the  tainted  ground  can  be 
dug  up  and  replaced  with  fresh  earth.  Two  foundations 
of  3"  x  4"  and  2"  x  4"  sills  are  made  for  each  house,  and 
these  are  set  side  by  side  or  end  to  end,  so  that  the 
houses  can  be  moved  back  and  forth  readily. 


FIG.  11 


Detailed  drawings  for  the  house  shown  in  Fig.  9 
are  shown  in  Figs.  10,  11,  and  12.  As  shown  in  Fig. 
10,  the  house  is  6  ft.  8  in.  long,  4  ft.  wide,  and  3  ft. 
6  in.  high  in  front  and  3  ft.  high  in  the  rear.  The  roof 


18 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


is  hinged  to  the  front  corner  posts  with  ^-in.  iron 
bolts  that  pass  through  the  uprights  and  end  frame  of 
the  roof.  The  frame  of  the  building  is  made  of  light 
but  strong  wood,  the  uprights  a  being  made  of  2"  x  3" 
material  and  the  baseboards  b  of  1-in.  material.  The 
front  and  rear  of  the  house  consist  of  doors  d  that 
can  be  raised  and  lowered  at  will.  The  doors  swing 
up  from  the  bottom  and  are  held  open  by  means  of 
an  iron  hook  h,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10  (&),  in  which  one 
of  the  front  doors  is  represented  in  the  open  position  by 
dotted  lines;  an  outside  view  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
To  prevent  the  hook  from  becoming  unfastened  when 
gusts  of  wind  shake  the  door,  the  wire  is  provided  with 
a  linked  joint  at  its  upper  end.  The  hook  should 


J§"Ho/e  for  Bo/f         , ^z»  j"^ 


FIG.  12 


always  hook  under  the  handle  and  never  over  it.  A 
small  hook  attached  to  a  light  chain  may  be  used  as 
a  substitute  for  the  iron  hook.  The  doors  and  roof 
are  made  of  a  light  framework  covered  with  thin 
matched  boards.  Plans  of  the  roof  and  door  frames 
are  shown  in  Fig.  12  (a)  and  (&). 

During  hot  weather  the  doors  may  be  raised  to  a 
nearly  horizontal  position,  thus  permitting  currents  of 
air  to  pass  through  the  coop,  and  in  this  position  they 
provide  shade  for  the  fowls.  The  fowls  may  be 
confined  to  the  houses  when  the  doors  are  opened  by 


POULTRY  HOUSES  1& 

closing  the  door  openings  with  a  wire-covered  or  a  slat 
framework.  These  frames  should  also  be  hinged  to 
the  upper  edge  of  the  house  so  as  to  open  inside. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  feature  of  the  house  is 
the  provision  made  for  ventilation.  Openings  are  left 
above  the  door  on  each  side  of  the  building,  through 
which  air  enters  and  passes  out  of  the  building  as  shown 
by  the  arrows  v  in  Fig.  10  (&).  The  amount  of  air 
entering  the  building  during  cold  weather  and  the 
danger  from  drafts  may  be  lessened  by  covering  the 
openings  with  a  short  curtain  of  burlap,  and  during 
particularly  severe  weather  the  opening  above  the  door 
in  the  rear  may  be  entirely  closed  by  packing  it. 
When  more  air  is  needed  than  can  be  furnished  by 
the  openings  above  the  doors,  the  side  doors  may  be 
opened  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  (&),  or  the  roof 
may  be  raised  as  shown  in  (c).  A  frame  /  covered 
with  cloth  or  heavy  paper  is  attached  to  the  roof  by 
means  of  short  chains  *;  when  the  roof  is  closed,  this 
frame  rests  on  slats  as  shown  in  (&)  and  forms  a  dead 
air  space,  which  protects  the  fowls  from  cold  caused 
by  snow  and  ice  on  the  roof  during  the  winter.  The 
frame  may  be  removed  in  the  summer  time. 

The  construction  of  the  end  walls  of  the  building  is 
shown  in  Fig.  11  (a)  and  (cf).  At  both  ends  of  the 
house  are  detachable  boxes  M,  one  of  which  is  arranged 
as  a  feed  trough  with  divisions  for  grit,  shell,  etc., 
which  the  fowls  can  obtain  from  the  inside  of  the  hopper. 
The  other  box  is  provided  with  nests  and  a  compartment 
for  a  drinking  pan.  The  pan  may  be  removed  and  rilled 
from  the  outside  by  means  of  the  trap  door  g  in 
the  box.  The  fowls  have  access  to  the  water  and  nests 
through  the  openings  w  and  n  in  Fig.  10  (&).  The 
boxes  are  attached  to  the  house  by  means  of  the  hooks  o 
and  may  be  quickly  removed  for  cleaning.  As  shown 
in  the  plans,  the  top  of  the  box  is  hinged  so  that  the 
eggs  may  be  readily  removed  from  the  nest  boxes  or  a 
new  supply  of  food  conveniently  placed  in  the  feed 
hoppers. 


20  POULTRY  HOUSES 

An  interior  view  of  the  house  is  shown  in  Fig.  11  (c). 
The  combined  dropping-board  and  roost  r,  the  con- 
struction of  which  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  is 
made  so  that  it  may  be  removed  readily  from  the  house 
and  cleaned.  If  possible,  the  dropping-board  should  be 
made  of  a  single  wide  board  rather  than  several  narrow 
ones;  cracks  and  crevices  between  narrow  boards  are 
difficult  to  clean.  The  beveled  cleats  on  the  ends 
of  the  dropping-board  prevent  splitting  and  form  a 
support  for  the  roost.  The  dropping-boards,  of  which 
there  are  two  in  each  house,  are  each  supported  at  one 
end  by  a  cleat  and  at  the  other  end  by  a  folding 
bracket.  The  construction  of  the  folding  bracket  is 
plainly  shown  in  Fig.  11  (&)  and  (c).  The  dropping- 
board  and  roosts  should  be  removed  each  morning  and 
cleaned  and  replaced  at.  roosting  time.  This  will  be 
imperative  when  the  fowls  are  confined  continually  to 
the  inside  of  the  house.  In  the  meantime,  the  bracket 
is  folded  up  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  exercising 
room  of  the  fowls. 

The  outside  of  the  house,  including  the  roof,  may  be 
covered  with  either  heavy  building  paper,  tar  paper, 
roofing  felt,  or  boards;  ^$-in.  matched  ceiling  or  thin, 
beaded  ceiling  boards  will  be  most  satisfactory  for  this 
purpose,  because  they  will  last  indefinitely  if  kept 
properly  painted.  Crude  carbolic  acid  is  a  good  material 
with  which  to  paint  them,  and  in  fact  this  may  be  used 
on  all  parts  of  the  house,  both  inside  and  out,  because 
it  is  an  insecticide  as  well  as  a  stain.  Crude  carbolic 
acid  may  be  colored  almost  any  shade  or  tint  desired 
by  the  addition  of  dry  paint. 

The  laying  house  described  may  be  used  for  a  few 
hens  having  free  range,  for  hens  confined  in  small 
yards  built  about  the  house,  or  for  hens  that  are  kept 
constantly  within  the  house.  The  keeping  of  a  few 
hens  and  a  cock  constantly  confined  in  a  house  of  this 
sort  is  the  extreme  of  intensity  in  poultry  farming.  The 
house  should,  of  course,  be  properly  cleaned  and  venti- 
lated even  when  the  fowls  kept  in  it  have  more  or  less 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


21 


range.     Under    such    conditions,    but    one    foundation    is 
necessary  for  each  house. 

The    houses    should    be    located    so    that    all    moisture 
will    drain   away    from   them.     Where   natural    drainage 


FIG.  13 

conditions  are  not  satisfactory  they  should  be  made 
so  artificially.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  cutting 
or  filling  or  by  building  terraces  on  which  the  houses 


22  POULTRY  HOUSES 

may  be  placed.  The  foundation  on  which  the  house 
is  placed  must  correspond  in  size  to  that  of  the  house. 
The  ground  inside  the  house  should  be  fairly  dry  and 
free  from  stones  and  lumps  of  earth.  It  should  be 
stirred  frequently  and  kept  loose  so  that  the  fowls 
will  have  to  scratch  in  it  when  small  grain  is  fed.  When 
the  soil  inside  the  house  becomes  tainted,  it  should  be 
changed  as  directed  in  a  preceding  paragraph.  When 
a  house  is  moved  to  the  second  foundation,  the  tainted 
soil  of  the  first  foundation  may  be  freshened  by  passing 
it  through  a  coarse  sieve  and  by  the  addition  of  new 
soil;  if  the  soil  is  tainted  to  a  considerable  depth  it 
should  be  plowed  or  spaded  into  the  ground  and  fresh 
soil  put  on  the  surface.  By  moving  the  houses  frequently 
and  by  judiciously  caring  for  the  soil,  the  houses  and 
surroundings  may  be  kept  in  a  fairly  sanitary  condition, 
and  as  long  as  such  a  condition  exists  the  health  of  the 
fowls  will  be  maintained.  The  vitality  of  fowls  kept 
in  this  way  will  nevertheless  gradually  decrease. 

The  brood  coops  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the 
laying  house  shown  in  Fig.  9  may  be  made  as  shown 
in  Fig.  13  (a).  The  coop  shown  is  7  ft.  long,  y/2  ft.  wide, 
2l/2  ft.  high  in  the  rear,  2  ft.  high  in  the  front,  and  3  ft. 
high  in  the  middle.  Coops  of  this  type  may  be  made 
larger  or  smaller  than  the  dimensions  given,  and  they 
may  be  made  single,  as  shown  in  (a),  or  in  sections, 
as  shown  in  (&) ;  if  made  in  sections,  the  coops  may  be 
thrown  into  one  large  compartment  or  each  coop  may 
be  kept  separate.  The  coop  may  have  either  a  fixed  or  a 
movable  board  floor,  or  the  ground  may  be  used  as  a 
floor.  The  most  satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained,  es- 
pecially when  fireless  brooders  are  used,  if  the  rear  half 
of  the  floor  is  made  of  boards  and  the  other  part  of  dirt. 
When  the  chicks  are  to  be  reared  artificially  without 
heat,  fireless  brooders  e  can  be  placed  on  the  board 
floor  at  the  rear  of  the  coop. 

The  passage  of  currents  of  cold  air  through  the  coop 
is  prevented  by  hanging  muslin  or  canvas  around  the 
front  of  the  roof;  this  also  prevents  the  chicks  from 


POULTRY  HOUSES  23 

jumping  out  when  the  lid  is  raised.  A  canvas  curtain 
can  also  be  fastened  over  the  ventilating  space  along 
the  end  of  the  roof  at  the  middle  of  the  building  during 
the  cold  weather.  The  manner  of  fastening  this  cover- 
ing and  attaching  the  hinges  is  shown  in  (d).  In  order 
to  further  protect  the  chicks  from  cold,  an  inside  ceiling 
of  burlap  or  canvas  may  be  constructed  as  shown  at  (?). 
Grooves  h  are  cut  in  the  framework  where  the 
doors  come  together,  as  shown  in  (c)  and  (d),  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  off  the  water  and  preventing  it 
from  reaching  the  interior  of  the  building.  In  warm 
weather,  the  coop  may  be  ventilated  by  raising  the 
top  as  shown  at  /  in  (6),  and  when  the  weather  is  very 
warm  or  the  chicks  are  grown  to  maturity  in  the  coop 
without  liberty,  it  may  be  further  raised  and  a  wire 
screen  g  set  in  as  shown.  The  screen  is  made  to  fold 
flat  on  the  roof  of  the  coop. 

A  number  of  these  coops  may  be  set  close  together 
or  they  may  be  placed  farther  apart  on  a  range..  If  the 
coops  are  kept  in  constant  use,  they  should  be  sepa- 
rated and  moved  frequently  to  give  the  chicks  fresh 
soil.  Chicks  confined  entirely  to  such  close  quarters 
as  in  this  coop  do  not  develop  as  well  as  those  that 
have  free  or  partial  range.  Fowls  raised  in  this  way 
are  not  as  suitable  for  breeders  as  those  having  more 
range  for  exercise. 

When  fireless  brooders  are  used,  the  coop  should  have 
a  board  floor  extending  half  way  to  the  front,  and  the 
rest  of  the  space  should  be  filled  in  with  dry  earth  up 
to  the  level  of  the  board  floor.  Chicks  are  kept  warm 
in  fireless  brooders  by  the  heat  of  their  own  bodies, 
which  is  retained  by  the  hover.  When  the  chicks  are 
placed  in  the  brooders,  a  T-shaped  board  partition  is 
placed  in  front  of  and  between  the  brooders  to  con- 
fine each  brood  close  to  its  own  brooder  until  the  chicks 
have  learned  to  go  outside  for  food  and  inside  for 
warmth.  \Vhen  the  chicks  have  grown  a  coat  of 
feathers,  the  brooder  boxes  are  removed  and  roosts 
installed  as  shown  in  Fig.  13  (&). 


24 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


HOUSES  FOR  BANTAMS 

A  small  house  is  suitable  for  bantams;  the  smaller 
the  house,  the  less  space  there  will  be  for  their  bodies 
to  heat  up,  and  the  more  comfortable  they  will  be 
during  very  cold  nights.  The  box  house  illustrated  in 
Fig.  14  can  be  built  out  of  packing  cases  that  are  3l/2 
ft.  wide,  4*/2  ft.  long,  and  of  the  average  height,  the  front 
elevation  of  the  building  being  4*/2  ft.  and  the  rear 
elevation  y/2  ft.  The  floor  of  the  house,  which  is  made 
first,  is  4  ft.  wide  and  5  ft.  long,  and  is  elevated  12 
in.  above  the  ground  by  cleats  nailed  all  around  on 
the  under  side  flush  with  the  edge.  The  walls  of  the 
house  are  nailed  to  the  edge  of  the  floor,  the  boards  in 


FIG.  14 

the  rear  and  on  the  sides  resting  on  the  ground,  closing 
the  space  under  the  floor  on  three  sides.  In  front, 
the  boards  extend  6  in.  below  the  floor  and  to  within 
6  in.  of  the  ground,  leaving  an  open  space  a  of  12  in. 
under  the  floor.  When  the  siding  is  in  place  the  roof 
is  put  on  and  covered  with  roofing  paper. 

One  8"  x  10"  pane  of  glass  in  front  admits  all  the 
light  that  is  needed;  the  single-board  door  admits 
the  bantams  and  permits  the  gathering  of  the  eggs  and 
the  cleaning  of  the  house.  A  round  roost  pole  across  the 
rear  end  and  some  small  nest  boxes  completes  the  house. 
This  house  will  provide  quarters  for  ten  or  twelve 
bantams.  It  can  be  moved  beneath  the  shelter  of  a 


POULTRY  HOUSES  25 

tree  during  the  summer  months,  placed  under  a  shed 
or  moved  to  the  basement  during  the  severe  cold 
weather,  or  left  in  the  open  throughout  the  entire  year. 
It  is,  in  fact,  a  comfortable  house  for  bantams  in  all 
kinds  of  weather.  The  dust  bath  for  the  bantams  is 
beneath  the  house:  When  the  nights  are  cold  the  open 
space  a  in  front  should  be  closed.  In  localities  where 
it  is  very  cold,  and  where  there  are  spells  of  severe 
weather,  the  outside  of  the  box  should  be  covered  with 
tar  paper  to  close  the  cracks  against  the  wind. 

For  Brahma  or  Cochin  Bantams,  a  low,  compact  house 
is  the  best.  These  bantams  can  withstand  the  coldest 
weather  if  they  are  as  well  protected  as  are  other  fowls. 


FIG.  15 

The  house  shown  in  Fig.  15  is  8  ft.  long  and  6  ft.  wide; 
it  is  6l/2  ft.  high  in  front  and  5  ft.  high  in  the  rear; 
the  fence  for  the  enclosure  is  5  ft.  high.  If  desired, 
this  house  can  be  divided  through  the  middle  and  be 
used  for  two  separate  lots  of  bantams.  When  this  is 
done,  a  division  fence  should  separate  the  two  pens. 
The  interior  of  the  house  may  be  arranged  to  suit  the 
convenience  of  the  poultryman.  The  building  has  a 
double  door,  the  inner  screen  door  a  swinging  to  the 
inside  and  the  board  door  swinging  to  the  outside.  The 
outer  door  should  be  left  open  during  warm  weather 
and  on  bright  days  during  cold  weather  to  prevent 
dampness.  The  house  should  have  a  board  floor. 


26  POULTRY  HOUSES 

YARDS  FOR  POULTRY  HOUSES 

Purpose  and  Size  of  Yards.— Fowls  are  confined  in 
yards  to  prevent  them  from  trespassing  and  from  going 
where  they  may  do  harm  or  where  they  may  injure^ 
themselves.  They  are  also  confined  when  an  effort  is 
being  made  to  secure  a  large  egg  yield  by  intensive 
methods,  and  when  several  varieties  of  fowls  are  kept 
for  breeding  purposes,  in  which  case  the  flocks  must  be 
kept  separate  in  order  that  each  breed  may  remain  pure. 

Yards  cannot  be  too  large  and  are  frequently  too  small. 
Less  than  100  sq.  ft.  of  yard  room  per  head  is  not 
enough  to  secure  the  best  results  in  producing  eggs; 
a  yard  50  ft.  wide  and  100  ft.  long  will  be  sufficient  for 
fifty  hens,  provided  special  care  is  taken  to  keep  the 
soil  in  a  sanitary  condition.  If  the  yard  is  100  ft. 
square,  the  fifty  hens  will  do  much  better.  Two  and 
one-half  acres  will  answer  much  better  for  five  hundred 
hens  in  one  flock  than  the  same  space  divided  into 
ten  yards  for  fifty  hens  each.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  when  the  five  hundred  hens  are  confined  in  the 
space  of  2*/2  A.,  each  one  has  the  free  range  of  the 
entire  area,  and  when  the  space  is  divided  into  ten 
yards,  each  fowl  is  confined  to  a  space  about  equal 
in  size  to  that  of  an  ordinary  town  lot. 

Close  confinement  causes  the  flock  to  become  discon- 
tented, and  overcrowding  the  yard  lessens  the  egg 
yield.  If  either  one  or  both  of  these  conditions  is  of 
long  duration,  the  health  and  vitality  of  the  fowls  is 
undermined  and  destroyed.  Asiatic  fowls  can  be  kept 
in  health  and  vigor  in  much  less  space  than  can  the 
American  varieties;  Leghorns  must  have  more  than 
double  the  space  that  is  necessary  for  other  varieties. 
These  remarks  apply  to  the  keeping  of  laying  hens 
and  not  forcing  a  few  fowls  to  an  early  maturity  for 
the  market  on  a  space  so  limited  that  they  neither  pro- 
duce eggs  nor  maintain  vitality.  The  more  closely 
hens  are  confined,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  clean- 
liness, care,  and  proper  feeding. 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


27 


Number  of  Fowls  per  Acre.— The  number  of  fowls 
that  are  kept  on  1  A.  by  intensive  methods  varies 
considerably.  Under  most  conditions  500  fowls  is  a 
large  number  to  keep  on  an  acre.  The  number  of  fowls 
that  can  be  successfully  kept  per  acre  depends  to  some 
extent  on  the  purpose  for  which  the  fowls  are  kept. 
Fewer  laying  hens  can  be  kept  on  an  acre  than  fowls 
that  are  intended  only  for  market  poultry.  As  many 
as  1,000  laying  hens  have  been  kept  on  an  acre  with 
fair  success.  Some  instances  are  recorded  where  more 
than  this  number  have  been  kept  on  an  acre,  but  the 
common  yteld  of  hens  so  kept  never  equals  that  of  hens 
that  are  equally  well  cared  for  on  a  larger  area. 

As  many  as  several  thousand  broilers  can  be  raised 
to  marketable  size  on  an  acre  of  ground  in  a  single 
year  when  houses  suitable  to  the  purpose  are  used, 
but  even  among  most  skilful  poultrymen  there  is  seldom 
any  attempt  to  raise  as  many  as  this  on  an  acre. 

In  some  systems  of  poultry  raising,  as  many  as  650 
half-grown  and  mature  fowls  are  confined  upon  a  plot 
of  ground  50  ft.  wide  and  60  ft.  long.  This  allows  only 
3,000  sq.  ft.  for  650  fowls,  or  but  a  trifle  over  4.6  sq.  ft. 


per  fowl.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  9,400  fowls  to  the  acre. 
Under  such  conditions  the  problems  of  sanitation  and 
providing  the  fowls  with  sufficient  exercise  are  very 
serious. 


48  POULTRY  HOUSES 

Cold  Frames  in  Yards.— Each  yard  or  runway  of  small 
size  should  be  provided  with  a  cold  frame  for  producing 
a  daily  supply  of  green  food  for-  the  fowls.  Such  a 
frame  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  It 
is  made  of  boards  1  in.  thick  and  9  in.  wide.  The  frame 
may  be  made  of  any  desirable  dimensions,  the  one  shown 
being  12  ft.  long  and  4  ft.  wide.  The  frame  is  set 
from  3  to  4  in.  into  the  ground  and  the  top  is  at  least 
6  in.  above  the  ground.  To  produce  green  food,  the  soil 
in  the  frame  is  thoroughly  dug  up  and  cultivated  to 
provide  a  fine  seed-bed.  Oats,  wheat,  rye,  or  barley, 
with  which  has  been  mixed  Red  clover  seed,  or  the 
screenings  from  these  grains,  is  then  sown  thickly  to 
produce  a  close  growth  of  plants.  After  the  seed  has 
been  raked  in  a  wire-covered  frame  is  placed  over  the 
top.  The  seed-bed  is  watered  daily,  both  morning  and 
evening,  and  this  is  continued  until  the  plants  finish 
their  growth.  The  top  of  the  frame  is  kept  covered  with 
muslin  cloth  until  after  the  seed  has  sprouted. 

After  the  seed  has  sprouted  the  cloth  is  removed  and 
a  more  plentiful  supply  of  water  is  sprinkled  over  the 
bed  each  time  they  are  watered.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
appear  through  the  netting  the  fowls  peck  at  and  eat 
them.  The  mesh  of  the  netting  used  should  not  be 
greater  than  1  in.,  and  a  smaller  mesh  is  preferable.  The 
fowls  should  be  prevented  from  reaching  through  and 
pulling  the  plants  from  the  ground  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  have  the  netting  stretched  tight  to  keep  it 
from  sagging  from  the  weight  of  the  fowls.  When  the 
vitality  of  the  plants  in  the  cold  frame  has  been 
exhausted  the  bed  can  be  replanted  and  a  fresh  supply 
of  green  food  grown.  When  plants  are  grown  in  this 
way  the  quickness  of  their  growth  depends  largely  on  a 
regular  and  plentiful  supply  of  moisture.  If  this 
requirement  is  overlooked  and  the  ground  becomes  dry 
enough  to  cause  the  plants  to  wilt,  no  amount  of  moisture 
or  care  can  put  them  in  a  good  condition  again. 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS  29 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS 

The  process  of  digestion  in  poultry  differs  materially 
from  that  in  animate  that  chew  their  food.  Fowls  have 
no  teeth,  the  functions  of  the  teeth  being  performed 
by  the  gizzard,  in  which,  by  the  aid  of  grit,  the  food  is 


FIG.  1 

ground  into  pulp.  The  greater  part  of  the  food  eaten 
by  poultry  is  swallowed  whole  and  passes  in  that 
condition  to  the  crop,  where  it  absorbs  considerable 
moisture  before  it  passes  to  the  other  digestive  organs. 
A  general  view  of  the  internal  organs  of  a  hen  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  After  being  picked  up  by  the  bill,  the 


30  INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS 

food  passes  through  the  upper  part  of  the  esophagus 
a  into  the  crop  &;  from  the  crop  the  food  passes  through 
the  lower  part  of  the  esophagus  into  the  gizzard  c; 
and  from  there  through  the  other  organs  of  the  digestive 
system. 

Crop. — In  fowls  and  other  granivorous,  or  grain-eating, 
birds,  the  crop  is  relatively  larger  than  the  crop  of 
birds  that  feed  largely  on  grass.  Within  the  crops  are 
juices  that  moisten  the  food  and  hasten  its  passage  into 
the  gizzard. 

Gizzard.— The  gizzard  c  may  be  looked  on  as  a  power- 
ful grinding  machine  in  which  the  whole  grain  and 
other  foods  of  poultry  are  ground,  oftentimes  finer 
than  they  would  be  ground  by  the  teeth  of  chewing 
animals.  The  grinding  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  powerful  muscles  of  the  gizzard,  which  keep  the 
mixture  of  sand,  grit,  and  food  within  it  constantly  in 
motion.  In  the  gizzard  the  food  is  also  acted  on  by 
digestive  juices  before  being  passed  into  the  intestines. 

Intestines. — The  intestines  as  applied  to  fowls  means 
all  of  the  alimentary  canal  beyond  the  gizzard.  The 
intestines  of  the  fowls,  although  different  in  many 
respects  from  those  of  other  animals,  present  a  somewhat 
similar  appearance  and  have  functions  nearly  identical 
with  those  of  the  other  domestic  animals.  In  fowls,  the 
intestines  are  made  up  of  the  duodenum,  and  the  rest 
of  the  small  intestines  d,  the  caeca  e,  and  the  large 
intestines  and  the  rectum  g.  Inside  of  the  intestines  the 
food  is  acted  on  by  various  digestive  fluids,  and 
digestible  nutrients  within  the  food  are  taken  from  it 
and  eventually  converted  into  blood.  The  inner  walls 
of  the  intestines  are  covered  with  minute  projections 
known  as  villi,  which  absorb  the  digested  material 
from  the  contents  of  the  intestines.  The  indigestible 
part  of  the  food  passes  into  the  rectum  g  and  out  of 
the  body  through  the  vent  h. 

Liver. — The  liver  i  is  a  large,  two-lobed  organ  of 
peculiar  cellular  structure.  It  has  two  offices,  one  of 
them  being  to  purify  the  digested  material  brought  to 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS  31 

it  by  the  capillaries,  and  the  other  to  secrete  the  bile, 
an  important  digestive  fluid.  The  liver  must  be  kept 
in  a  healthy  condition  or  the  blood,  and  consequently 
the  entire  system,  will  speedily  become  poisoned. 

Gall  Bladder.— The  gall  bladder  k  serves  as  a  reservoir 
for  the  bile  secreted  by  the  liver,  to  which  it  is  closely 
attached.  The  bile  is  passed,  as  needed,  from  the  gall 
bladder  to  the  intestines,  where  its  special  office  is 
to  break  up  the  vegetable  fats  and  oils  and  convert  them 
into  soluble  animal  fat,  which  is  readily  made  a  part  oi 
the  fowl's  body. 

Spleen.— The  spleen  .s  is  located  near  the  liver  and  is 
an  organ  whose  use  is  not  definitely  known.  It  is 
thought,  however,-  that  it  is  useful  in  producing  certain 
modifications  in  the  blood. 

Pancreas.— Situated  among  the  folds  of  the  small 
intestines  is  the  pancreas  /,  a  small  organ  of  insig- 
nificant appearance.  This  organ  is  of  vital  importance, 
for  in  it  is  secreted  the  pancreatic  juice,  which  flows 
from  the  pancreas  into  the  intestines,  where  it  acts 
directly  on  the  starchy  portions  of  food,  and  to  a 
limited  extent  on  protein;  it  also  aids  in  the  absorption 
of  fat.  The  juice  from  the  pancreas  unites  with  the  bile 
and  they  together  flow  over  the  foods  as  they  come  from 
the  gizzard. 

Heart  and  Lungs.— The  heart  in  and  the  lungs  n  are 
vital  organs.  The  work  done  by  the  latter,  like  that 
of  the  liver,  consists  in  purifying  the  blood.  The  office 
of  the  heart,  as  is  well  known,  is  to  pump  the  blood 
to  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  heart,  lungs,  and  liver  may 
be  considered  as  the  most  important  organs  of  the  body, 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  in  good  working 
order,  for  when  the  action  of  one  of  these  organs  is 
faulty,  the  effect  is  soon  apparent  on  the  others.  The  air 
is  supplied  to  the  lungs  through  the  windpipe  w. 

Kidneys. — The  kidneys  o  are  located  in  cavities  in 
the  pelvic  bone.  They  act  on  the  blood  and  separate 
from  it  liquid  waste  material,  which  is  eventually  passed 
from  the  body  through  the  vent. 


32 


INTERNAL  ORGANS  OF  FOWLS 


Ovaries  and  Oviduct.— The  ovaries  p  and  the  oviduct  q 
are  shown  enlarged  in  Fig.  2.  The  ovaries  a  (Fig.  2) 
are  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  backbone,  usually 
on  the  left.  The  ovaries 
and  the  oviduct  are  the 
female  organs  of  repro- 
duction. The  yolk  of  the 
egg  attains  its  full  size 
within  the  casing  of  the 
ovaries,  which,  in  good 
laying  hens,  contain 
yolks  varying  in  size 
from  that  of  a  small  pin 
head  to  that  of  the  full- 
grown  yolk.  As  soon  as 
the  yolk  has  reached  its 
full  development,  the 
casing  of  the  ovary,  or 
ovisac,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  opens  and  the 
yolk  passes  into  the  ovi- 
duct c.  The  yolk  may  or 
L  may  not  be  fertilized  by 
'  the  male  element  before 
or  just  after  entering  the 
oviduct. 

The  oviduct  varies  in 
length,  and  in  some  cases 
it  is  nearly  2  ft.  long.  As 
the  yolk  passes  through 
the  oviduct  it  becomes 
covered  with  albumen,  of 
which  the  white  of  the 
egg  is  composed,  and 
with  a  double  membrane, 
or  the  lining  to  the  egg- 
shell. After  the  egg  has  reached  its  full  size  the  shell  is 
formed  about  it  in  the  oviduct.  The  passage  of  the  egg 
through  the  oviduct  requires  from  6  to  18  or  20  hr. 


FIG.  2 


POULTRY  FOODS  33 


POULTRY  FOODS 


COMPOSITION   OF  FOOD 

Food  is  any  substance  that  a  plant  or  an  animal  may 
take  into  its  body  and  use  for  building  up  wasted 
tissues  and  maintaining  natural  conditions.  Besides 
water,  which  is  present  in  all  foods,  the  different  com- 
pounds of  which  solid  animal  foods  are  composed  have 
been  grouped  into  four  classes:  carbohydrates,  fats, 
protein,  and  ash.  All  the  compounds  belonging  to  these 
classes  of  food  elements,  or  principles,  are  not  completely 
digestible,  and  the  value  of  poultry  food  is  determined 
largely  by  the  amount  of  these  food  constituents  that 
can  be  digested  by  the  fowls. 

When  food  is  digested  it  forms  blood,  which  circulates 
throughout  the  body  and  sustains  life.  By  means  of 
the  blood  the  nutritious  portions  of  the  food  are  assimi- 
lated, or  incorporated  into  the  body  of  the  fowl  for  the 
purpose  of  nourishing  it  and  for  renewing  wasted  tissues. 
Eggs  are  composed  largely  of  the  same  kind  of  materials 
that  are  utilized  in  the  formation  of  blood  and  flesh. 

All  foods  contain  water;  dry  grains,  meals,  and  hays 
contain  from  7  to  10%,  and  grasses,  green  plants,  roots, 
and  unripened  grains  contain  from  60  to  70%.  The 
flesh  of  fowls  and  their  eggs  are  from  41  to  65%  water, 
1  doz.  new-laid  eggs  containing  almost  1  Ib. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  solid  part  of  poultry  food 
is  composed  of  carbohydrates,  or  nitrogen-free  extracts,  as 
they  are  sometimes  called.  Carbohydrates  are  made  up 
largely  of  starch,  sugar,  gums,  vegetable  acids,  and  crude 
fiber.  Carbohydrates  are  used  by  fowls  to  supply 
energy,  to  produce  animal  fats  and  oils,  and  to  maintain 
the  body  heat. 

The  food  elements  known  as  fats,  or  oils,  differ  from 
carbohydrates  in  being  able  to  produce  more  heat.  For 


34  POULTRY  FOODS 

this  purpose,  1  part  of  fat  is  equal  to  2l/i  parts  of 
carbohydrates.  For  this  reason,  when  estimating  the 
heating  value  of  foods,  it  is  customary  to  multiply  the 
amount  of  fat  in  them  by  2K  in  order  to  express  its 
equivalent  in  carbohydrates. 

That  portion  of  food  which  contains  nitrogen  is 
known  as  protein.  The  lean  meat  of  the  fowl  and  the 
white  of  the  egg  are  'composed  largely  of  this  principle. 
As  a  source  of  heat  and  energy,  protein  is  about  equal 
to  the  carbohydrates,  but  animal  heat  obtained  from 
protein  is  very  expensive.  Protein  is  much  more  costly 
than  the  carbohydrates  and  fats,  and  no  more  of  it 
should  be  fed  to  fowls  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
renew  waste,  make  new  growth,  and  furnish  the  needed 
quantity  for  egg  formation. 

That  part  of  food  which  would  be  left  if  the  food 
were  burned  is  called  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  and  it  con- 
tains calcium,  magnesium,  potassium,  sodium,  iron,  and 
other  elements.  When  assimilated  by  fowls,  ash  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  bones  and  the  shells  of 
the  eggs.  There  is  not  enough  ash  for  egg  and  bone 
formation  in  the  food  usually  fed  to  fowls,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  necessary  to  supply  them  with  such  mate- 
rials as  oyster  shells,  clam  shells,  limestone  grit,  etc. 

Foods  that  contain  a  large  proportion  of  crude  fiber 
are  spoken  of  as  roughage,  and  those  that  contain  little 
crude  fiber  and  that  are  nearly  all  digestible  are 
known  as  concentrates.  Clover  hay  is  an  example  of 
roughage;  corn  meal  is  an  example  of  a  concentrate. 
Although  of  little  direct  value  as  a  food  for  poultry, 
roughage,  or  crude  fiber,  is  important  in  a  food  because 
in  passing  through  the  digestive  organs  it  distends  them 
and  serves  as  an  irritant  that  stimulates  their  me- 
chanical action  and  assists  them  in  digesting  their 
contents. 

When  feeding  fowls  it  is  always  best  to  have  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  ash,  fiber,  and  roughage  in  their 
rations  to  extend  the  crop  and  to  keep  the  gizzard 
actively  employed  in  grinding.  During  the  process  of 


POULTRY  FOODS  35 

grinding  the  coarse  foods  become  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  concentrated  foods  and  all  pass  through  the  intes- 
tines in  a  manner  that  makes  their  assimilation  much 
more  natural  and,  therefore,  of  more  real  benefit  to  the 
fowls  than  would  be  the  case  without  them. 

Clover  and  alfalfa  hay  and  bran  are  very  highly  con- 
sidered as  roughage  for  poultry,  and  they  not  only  well 
serve  the  purposes  mentioned  but  are  also  valuable  as 
food.  Clover  and  alfalfa  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
ash  and  fiber  and  are  among  the  best  substitutes  for 
green  food  as  well;  although  but  little  of  the  bran  is 
digested,  it  is  most  valuable  as  an  intestinal  irritant. 

When  feeding  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  it  is  well  to  throw 
bundles  of  these  into  the  houses  on  the  litter  and  permit 
the  fowls  to  pick  the  leaves  and  scratch  in  the  hay  as 
they  do  in  the  litter. 

Uses  of  the  Food  Principles.— After  being  digested  and 
absorbed  by  the  blood  vessels,  the  different  food  princi- 
ples are  used  by  the  body  for  various  purposes.  From 
protein  are  formed  the  muscles,  or  lean  meat,  and  this 
principle  also  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the 
bones  and  feathers,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  egg. 
Protein  can  be  more  completely  utilized  than  the  other 
food  elements  and  some  hens  seem  to  have  the  power 
to  utilize  practically  all  of  the  protein  contained  in 
the  food  they  eat. 

Carbohydrates  are  mainly  used  to  keep  up  the  body 
temperature.  The  utilization  of  carbohydrates  for  this 
purpose  is  really  a  slow  form  of  burning,  which  is  just 
as  necessary  for  the  life  of  the  fowl  as  the  fire  beneath 
the  boiler  is  for  the  running  of  the  steam  engine. 
Carbohydrates  are  also  the  source  of  much  of  the  energy 
used  when  the  fowl  moves  itself  about  and  performs 
other  work. 

The  function  of  fats  is  similar  to  that  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates. Fats,  however  are  a  more  concentrated  fuel, 
1  Ib.  of  fat  being  equal  to  about  2^4  lb.  of  carbohydrates. 
Fats  can  also  be  stored  for  future  use  in  the  fowl's  body, 
a  thing  that  cannot  be  done  with  carbohydrates. 


POULTRY  FOODS 


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38  POULTRY  FOODS 

Analyses  of  Foods.— The  preceding  table  gives  the 
analyses,  nutritive  ratio,  and  manurial  value  of  various 
poultry  foods. 

SEEDS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

Foods  the  quality  of  which  is  unquestionably  good 
are  the  most  economical  for  poultry.  Shriveled,  im- 
mature, or  imperfect  grains  do  not  contain  the  full 
amounts  of  digestible  nutrients,  and  such  grains  are 
likely  to  be  deficient  in  protein.  When  the  best  results 
are  desired  none  except  good,  plump,  mature  grains  are 
used.  The  same  principle  applies  in  selecting  the  by- 
products of  grains. 

The  relative  value  of  poultry  foods  can  best  be 
estimated  when  the  food  value  of  each  is  well  under-' 
stood.  It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  buy  the  foods 
rich  in  protein  than  those  lacking  in  this  valuable 
principle.  % 

WHEAT 

Whole  Wheat.— A  grain  of  wheat  is  made  up  of  an 
outer  shell,  an  inner  lining,  and  a  food  center,  its 
structure  in  a  general  way  resembling  that  of  an  egg. 
The  shell  of  the  wheat  kernel  is  composed  largely  of 
crude  fiber;  the  central  part  contains  some  protein,  but 
consists  mainly  of  starch.  The  protein,  or  gluten,  of 
the  wheat  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  it,  and  no 
other  grain  will  fill  the  place  of  wheat  as  a  food  for 
the  production  of  lean  meat  and  eggs  by  fowls.  Wheat 
is  rich  in  both  protein  and  the  fat-forming  principles, 
but  it  is  a  better  food  for  making  blood,  flesh,  and 
feathers  than  for  fattening  purposes;  hence,  it  is  a 
better  food  for  egg-producing  hens  than  for  those  in- 
tended for  the  market.  Wheat  is  commonly  one  of  the 
several  grains  used  in  making  up  a  ration  for  fowls. 
Although  the  best  whole  grain  for  hens,  it  does  not  form 
a  perfect  ration  when  fed  alone. 

Second  grades  of  wheat  can  be  purchased  at  a  lower 
price  than  the  higher  grades.  If  they  are  sound  and 


POULTRY  FOODS 


39 


have  good  feeding  qualities,  these  second-grade  wheats 
can  be  used  to  advantage;  but  if  they  are  shriveled  or 
blighted,  they  have  little  value.  Burned,  wet,  musty,  or 
otherwise  damaged  grains  are  not  fit  for  feeding  to 
poultry. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  digestibility  of  tne 
various  food  principles  found  in  wheat  of  good  quality. 
Although  about  20%  of  its  dry  matter  is  indigestible, 
wheat,  on  account  of  its  palatability,  is  the  best  possible 
whole-grain  food  for  fowls. 

DIGESTIBLE    MATTER    IN    WHEAT 


Per 

Per 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Parts  of  Wheat 

Digest- 
ible 

Parts  of  Wheat 

Digest- 
ible 

Organic  matter 

81  86 

Crude  fiber  .   . 

None 

Protein                  

77.12 

Carbohydrates  

86.59 

Fat 

39.67 

Wheat  Screenings.— The  value  of  wheat  screenings  as 
a  food  depends  on  the  quantity  of  weed  seeds  and  other 
materials  that  are  mixed  with  the  wheat  of  inferior 
quality.  Good  wheat  screenings  have  a  food  value  equal 
to  that  of  oats;  screenings  of  poor  quality  have  a  food 
value  that  may  be  less  than  that  of  oat  hulls  or  straw. 
Although  fowls  will  eat  a  large  portion  of  the  weed 
seeds  in  screenings,  many  of  them  have  no  food  value. 
Wheat  screenings  as  a  food  for  poultry  are  used  in 
connection  with  an  animal  food  and  corn. 

Wheat  Bran. — The  amount  of  gluten  contained  in 
wheat  bran,  which  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  flour,  determines  its  value  as  an  egg-producing  food. 
If  the  bran  has  the  appearance  of  being  kiln-dried,  it 
probably  contains  so  little  digestible  material  that  it 
is  worthless  as  a  food  for  hens.  As  dry  bran  free  from 
gluten  is  practically  all  crude  fiber,  it  is  valuable  only 


40  POULTRY  FOODS 

as  a  bulky  substance  for  distending  the  intestines  so 
that  concentrated  foods  may  be  digested. 

Middlings  and  Shorts.— The  terms  middlings  and  shorts 
are  applied  to  by-products  of  the  manufacture  of  flour. 
Wheat  middlings  are  made  from  the  membrane  that  lies 
between  the  outer  shell  and  the  starchy  interior  of  the 
wheat  kernel;  they  contain  some  gluten,  a  substance 
composed  largely  of  protein.  Shorts  as  usually  sold 
are  made  up  of  small,  or  ground,  bran  and  wheat 
sweepings.  Thirds,  or  fine  shorts,  are  middlings  of 
good  quality.  Middlings  are  worth  more  than  bran  and 
are  much  used  in  making  dry-mash  rations. 

Flour.— When  it  can  be  cheaply  obtained,  the  lower 
grade  of  dark  flour  is  sometimes  used  for  feeding  to 
poultry.  This  flour  is  rich  in  protein  and  other  food 
principles,  and  can  be  mixed  with  middlings  and  corn 
meal.  The  resulting  mixture  may  then  be  baked  like 
bread  and  fed  to  young  or  growing  chicks.  A  small 
quantity  of  this  flour  mixed  with  mash  forms  a  crumbly 
mass. 

Whole  Oats.— The  determination  of  the  value  of  whole 
oats  by  their  appearance  is  exceedingly  difficult.  Good 
oats  rank  next  to  wheat  as  a  poultry  food,  but  the  one 
objection  to  oats  is  that  they  vary  widely  in  the 
proportion  of  hulls,  or  husks,  which  are  indigestible. 
Some  oats  are  two-fifths  husks,  which  are  of  no  value 
as  food.  The  weight  of  oats  varies  from  25  to  50  Ib. 
per  bu.  Light  oats  are  unfit  food  for  fowls;  heavy  oats 
1  with  full,  plump  kernels  are  one  of  the  very  best. 
Hulled  oats  are  preferable  for  feeding  to  poultry; 
heavy-weight  clipped  oats  stand  next  in  value;  ground 
oats  of  the  best  quality  are  also  an  excellent  food  for 
poultry. 

Oatmeal  and  Hulled  Oats.— In  the  manufacture  of 
both  oatmeal  and  hulled  oats,  which  have  the  same 
nutritive  ratio,  the  hulls  are  removed;  consequently,  the 
food  value  of  both  oatmeal  and  hulled  oats  is  greater 
than  that  of  whole  oats.  Oats  thus  prepared  are 
extensively  used  in  making  rations  for  young  or  growing 


POULTRY  FOODS  41 

chicks.  Whole  oats  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  to  6; 
hulled  oats  and  oatmeal,  1  to  4.  Consequently,  pre- 
pared oats  are  better  than  whole  oats  as  food  for  young 
chicks  and  laying  hens.  Either  hulled  oats  or  oat- 
meal is  one  of  the  best  single-grain  rations  for  fowls. 

Oat  Hulls. — As  a  poultry  food,  oat  hulls,  apart  from 
their  value  as  manure,  which  is  small,  are  worth  no 
more  than  sawdust.  Ground  oat  hulls  are  liberally 
used  as  an  adulterant  to  lessen  the  cost  of  other  foods 
in  preparing  poultry  feeds,  and  the  presence  of  much 
of  this  adulterant  may  so  reduce  the  value  of  the  feed 
as  to  make  it  useless. 

CORN 

Whole  Corn.— The  structure  of  the  corn  kernel  is 
similar  in  a  general  way  to  that  of  the  wheat  grain. 
Corn  is  the  grain  that  is  ordinarily  the  most  attractive 
to  poultry.  Some  corn  is  almost  a  necessity  for  suc- 
cessful poultry  feeding,  but  an  all-corn  ration  is 
injurious  because  it  is  too  fattening.  Corn  alone, 
however,  will  not  fatten  a  fowl  in  the  best  way,  nor 
will  it  produce  a  good  yield  of  eggs.  Corn  is  rich  in 
carbohydrates  and  fats;  it  provides  heat  for  the  body, 
and  oil  and  fat  for  the  feathers,  for  the  yolk  of  the 
egg,  and  for  the  flesh.  Corn  contains  too  little  protein 
and  ash  for  successful  egg  production,  and  to  produce 
the  best  results  is  combined  with  other  grains.  A 
balanced  ration  is  formed  by  the  use  of  corn  and  some 
other  grains  and  meat. 

Corn  Bran.— The  outside  of  the  grain,  or  the  shell, 
from  which  corn  bran  is  made,  is  removed  from  corn 
when  it  is  made  into  food  products  for  human  beings. 
This  shell  is  hard  and  dry  and  has  almost  no  food 
value,  being  composed  almost  entirely  of  indigestible 
fiber  and  a  little  ash;  and  is,  therefore,  of  ne  use  in 
poultry  rations. 

Gluten  Meals  and  Feeds.— Gluten,  a  by-product  of 
corn  starch  manufacture,  is  sometimes  sold  as  gluten 
meal,  and  is  a  very  important  food  for  dairy  cows. 
Good  gluten  meal  that  does  not  contain  corn  hulls, 


42  POULTRY  FOODS 

or  other  waste  products  is  also  useful  as  a  part  of  the 
meal  ration  for  poultry.  Gluten  meal  is  a  concen- 
trated food,  rich  in  protein,  nearly  all  of  which  is  di- 
gestible. Not  more  than  10%  of  a  ration  should  consist 
of  this  meal. 

The  germ  of  the  corn  is  rarely  sold  separate  from  the 
other  by-products.  Like  gluten  meal,  it  should  be  fed 
sparingly  to  fowls. 

Gluten  feed,  which  is  much  more  commonly  sold 
than  either  gluten  meal  or  the  corn  germs,  is  made  by 
grinding  the  germs,  hulls,  and  gluten  together.  Gluten 
feed,  although  not  so  rich  in  protein  as  either  the 
gluten  meal  or  corn  germs,  should  not  be  fed  too 
liberally  to  poultry. 

Hominy  Chop.— Hominy  is  made  from  the  hard  or 
flinty  part  of  the  corn.  The  hulls,  corn  germs,  and  some 
gluten  left  after  the  hominy  is  made,  are  ground  into 
coarse  meal  and  sold  as  hominy  chop,  which,  if  of 
good  quality,  is  fully  equal  in  value  to  corn  meal  as  a 
poultry  food.  Like  the  value  of  all  grain  by-products, 
the  value  of  hominy  chop  depends  on  its  quality,  and 
it  should  not  contain  too  much  crude  fiber. 

Corn  Cobs.— The  coarse  meal  made  from  corn  cobs 
cannot  be  prepared  in  any  way  that  fits  it  for  food. 
It  has  about  the  same  chemical  composition  as  straw, 
and  as  food  for  poultry  both  corn  cobs  and  straw  are 
valueless. 

MISCELLANEOUS  GRAINS  AND  SEEDS 
Kafir  Corn.— Both  Kafir  corn,  or  dari,  and  broom 
corn  belong  to  the  sorghum  family  of  plants.  The 
fact  that  Kafir  corn  is  used  largely  as  food  by  people 
of  Africa  and  in  other  countries  is  evidence  of  its 
nutritive  value,  Kafir  corn  being,  in  this  respect,  about 
equal  to  barley  or  buckwheat.  Kafir-corn  grains  are 
very  hard;  tests  made  by  feeding  old,  very  dry  grains  to 
fowls  show  that  many  of  them  passed  through  the  fowls 
without  being  broken  up.  The  same  grains  resisted 
for  a  time  an  effort  to  soften  them  by  boiling.  When 


POULTRY  FOODS  43 

broken  into  bits,  however,  the  small  pieces  could  be 
eaten  and  digested  by  young  chicks.  In  some  localities 
where  bugs  and  worms  are  plentiful,  the  entire  grain 
ration  for  the  summer  months  is  Kafir  corn,  a  plentiful 
supply  of  insect  food  with  this  kind  of  grain  making 
a  nearly  balanced  ration.  Kafir  corn  can  be  used  with 
safety  in  the  ration  for  full-grown  fowls,  and  if  broken 
into  small  pieces,  for  chicks  as  well. 

Broom  Corn.— The  seed  of  broom  corn  as  a  food  for 
poultry  is  about  equal  in  value  to  sunflower  seed. 
Broom  corn  is  fed  sparingly;  a  ration  containing  more 
than  10%  of  this  grain  cannot  be  fed  with  safety  to 
fowls.  In  order  to  avoid  fermentation  and  mildew,  the 
heads  of  the  grain  are  spread  out  and  kept  in  a  dry 
place.  Ptomaine  poisoning  is  liable  to  be  produced  by 
the  eating  of  moldy  grain  or  seed  of  any  kind. 

Rye. — The  use  of  rye  as  a  food  for  poultry  should  be 
avoided;  fowls  do  not  relish  it  and  bad  results  may  come 
from  its  use. 

Barley.— The  grains  of  barley,  if  plump  and  of  good 
quality,  contain  almost  as  much  protein  as  oats,  more 
than  corn,  and  more  of  the  carbohydrates  than  oats 
but  not  so  much  as  corn.  Good  barley  is  about  15% 
hulls;  poor  barley  may  have  a  much  larger  percentage 
of  hulls,  and  the  grains  themselves  may  be  so  shriveled 
as  to  be  valueless  as  food.  Good  barley  meal  is  useful 
for  forming  a  part  of  a  meal  ration  for  fattening  fowls. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  meals  for  this  purpose;  but  the 
ordinary  barley  meals  are  likely  to  be  made  of  a  mixture 
of  barley  and  waste  products,  which  tend  to  deprive 
the  meal  of  its  feeding  value. 

Buckwheat.— Fowls  have  to  acquire  a  liking  for  buck- 
wheat; they  are  not  naturally  fond  of  it,  and  as  the 
hull,  which  forms  a  large  percentage  of  this  grain,  is 
indigestible,  buckwheat  is  not  good  as  a  single-grain 
ration.  Buckwheat  whitens  the  flesh  and  improves  its 
flavor  when  fed  liberally  to  fowls.  The  yolks  of  eggs 
from  hens  fed  freely  on  buckwheat  are  light  in  color. 
Although  a  small  quantity  of  buckwheat  may  be  used 


44  POULTRY  FOODS 

as  a  part  of  an  all-grain  ration,  it  is  not  classed  as  a 
desirable  grain  for  fowls. 

Buckwheat  Middlings.— The  hulls  of  buckwheat  have 
no  feeding  value,  but  in  some  localities  they  are  used. 
as  litter  in  buildings  and  brooders.  Buckwheat  mid- 
dlings are  superior  to  wheat  bran  and  wheat  middlings 
as  a  food  for  fowls,  and  this  fact  brings  into  the 
market  buckwheat  bran,  which  is  largely  broken  hulls 
mixed  with  buckwheat  middlings.  Although  the  floury 
middlings  of  buckwheat  are  fit  for  poultry  food,  the 
bran  of  this  grain  is  useless  for  this  purpose. 

Peas.— Although  fowls  relish  pea  vines,  they  must 
acquire  a  liking  for  the  peas  themeselves,  which  are  very 
good  food.  The  field  pea,  or  Canada  pea,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  is  largely  used  as  food  for  pigeons,  and  on 
the  whole  is  probably  the  best  pea  for  other  kinds  of 
poultry.  Low-priced,  broken  peas,  if  cooked,  can  at 
times  be  used  to  advantage.  When  they  have  been 
thoroughly  softened  by  boiling,  wheat  bran  is  added  to 
them  to  make  a  crumbly  mass;  a  little  flour  put  with 
the  bran  will  help  to  make  the  mass  stick  together.  A 
mixture  prepared  in  this  way  is  greedily  devoured  by 
hens,  and  is  an  excellent  egg-producing  ration.  Pea 
meal  is  a  concentrated  food  that  should  be  sparingly 
used.  Peas  or  pea  meal  added  to  a  fattening  ration 
improve  the  quality  of  the  lean  meat. 

Beans.— As  a  food  for  poultry,  beans  are  more  nutri- 
tious than  peas.  Bean  vines  are  not  so  well  liked  as  the 
pea  vines,  nor  will  the  fowls  eat  beans  as  long  as  they 
have  other  food  before  them.  Soybeans  contain  much 
protein  and  ash;  because  of  this  fact  they  are  valuable 
food  for  fowls.  Beans  should  be  boiled  to  a  soft  mush 
and  mixed  with  corn  meal  and  bran;  this  preparation 
makes  an  egg-producing  ration.  If  sufficient  corn  meal 
is  added,  a  fat-forming  ration  that  will  produce  a  good 
quality  of  table  meat  is  made.  Fowls  are  naturally 
attracted  to  a  mixture  of  this  kind.  Like  other  cooked 
foods,  boiled  beans  may  be  fed  to  fowls  while  warm, 
but  never  while  hot. 


POULTRY  FOODS  45 

Rice.— Rice  is  a  fat-forming  food  that  is  little  used 
for  poultry.  Small  or  broken  rice,  however,  may  be  used 
in  chick  feed  to  advantage.  Boiled  rice  is  a  good  food 
for  bantams  because  it  produces  so  little  bone  and  size; 
it  satisfies  hunger  but  does  not  produce  growth  to  any 
extent.  It  is  an  expensive  food  for  fowls. 

Millet.— The  seed  of  the  foxtail  millet  is  a  rich  grain 
that  should  not  be  fed  liberally  to  poultry.  When 
thrown  into  litter,  the  small,  bright-colored  seeds  attract 
the  fowls.  A  ration  made  up  entirely  of  millet  will 
destroy  young  chicks  and  injure  old  fowls.  This  seed 
is  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  chick  feeds,  and  also  in 
scratching  foods  for  hens.  Millet  is  a  fattening  food  and 
when  hard,  dry  millet  seed  is  liberally  fed,  it  may 
clog  the  intestines  or  pass  through  them  undigested. 

Sorghum  Seed.— The  food  value  of  the  seed  from  sugar- 
producing  sorghum  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  seed 
of  broom  corn,  but  sorghum  seed  is  more  fattening  than 
the  broom-corn  seed,  and  contains  a  little  less  protein 
than  that  seed.  Sorghum  plants  that  make  good  green 
food  for  fowls  are  grown  from  sorghum  seed  sown 
broadcast  or  drilled  into  the  ground. 

Sunflower  Seed. — Sunflower  seed  has  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  1  to  7,  about  the  same  as  wheat;  but  the  digestibility 
of  sunflower  seed  has  not  yet  been  accurately  deter- 
mined. It  is  likely  that  the  larger  part  of  sunflower 
seeds  are  indigestible.  The  kernels  have  a  pleasant 
flavor  and  contain  considerable  fat,  but  when  dry  and 
shriveled  their  food  value  is  small.  Fresh,  plump  sun- 
flower seeds  are  used  to  advantage  by  sparingly  feeding 
them  to  fowls  in  molt;  if  these  seeds  are  liberally  fed, 
the  digestive  organs  of  fowls  soon  become  clogged  with 
indigestible  fiber. 

Flaxseed.— Of  all  the  grains  and  seeds  fed  to  poultry, 
flaxseed  is  the  richest  in  oil  and  protein.  Its  use  is 
seldom  necessary,  because  equal  benefit  can  be  derived 
by  using  by-products  of  seeds  that  are  much  less  ex- 
pensive. Flaxseed  is  a  laxative,  but  contains  so  much 
gluten  that  it  may  clog  the  digestive  organs. 


46 


POULTRY  FOODS 


Linseed  Meal. — There  are  two  kinds  of  linseed  meal 
— old  process  and  new  process.  The  latter  contains  less 
protein  and  is  more  fattening  than  the  former.  There 
is  very  little  old-process  meal  made  at  the  present  time. 
Linseed  meal  contains  the  feather-forming  elements  to 
a  large  extent  and  is  valuable  during  molt;  it  can  be 
cautiously  fed  at  all  times.  Fowls  do  not  favor  it  as 
a  food;  it  is  laxative,  concentrated,  and  contains  so 
much  gluten  that  it  will  clog  the  crop  if  used  too 
liberally.  The  quantity  of  linseed  meal  used  should 
not  exceed  5%  of  the  entire  ration. 

Cottonseed  Meal.— Even  when 
fed  sparingly,  cottonseed  meal 
is  not  relished  by  fowls.  Neither 
cottonseed  nor  any  of  its  prod- 
ucts should  ever  be  fed  to  fowls, 
as  these  foods  act  as  irritants  to 
the  digestive  organs,  and  if  fed 
liberally  cause  death. 

Peanut       Meal.— Meal       made 
from   peanuts   after   the   oil   has 
been    extracted    is    a    good   food 
for   poultry.      It    is    a    palatable 
food  and  can  be  used  in   small 
quantities    with    other   fattening 
meals.     An  ounce  and  a  half  of 
LIGHT  BRAHMA  MALE     peanut  meal  has  about  the  same 
food  value  as  1  oz.  of  the  best  meat  scrap.     There  is  so 
little  of  this  meal  that  it  cannot  often  be  used  as  food 
for  poultry. 

Hemp  Seed.— Hemp  seed  contains  more  fat  and  less 
fiber  than  sunflower  seed;  for  this  reason,  hemp  seed 
is  more  easily  digested  and  gives  better  results  than 
sunflower  seed.  Hemp  seed,  which  is  a  stimulating, 
fat-forming  food,  is  fed  in  small  quantities  and  only  to 
fowls  that  are  slow  to  molt.  A  small  quantity  of  this 
seed  is  also  fed  to  exhibition  fowls  during  cold  weather 
to  improve  the  gloss  on  their  plumage.  Hemp  seed  is  too 
expensive  for  general  use. 


POULTRY  FOODS  17 

Canary  Seed. — The  best  known  balanced  ration  for 
cage  birds  is  canary  seed;  young  chicks  also  enjoy  a 
little  of  this  seed,  on  which  they  will  thrive  when  they 
do  not  do  well  on  other  grains.  All  waste  canary  seed 
should  be  fed  to  chicks,  but  this  feed  is  too  costly  to 
use  except  in  an  emergency  or  to  save  the  waste  from 
cage  birds. 

Rape  Seed.— German  rape  seed,  or  bird-seed  rape,  is 
a  better  food  than  millet  seed  for  young  chicks.  It  is 
a  fattening  food,  rich  in  protein,  and  dark  or  chestnut 
brown  in  color.  Rape-seed  grains  are  smaller  than 
millet  seeds.  For  ailing  or  weakly  chicks,  rape  seed 
is  boiled  for  5  min.,  turned  into,  a  fine,  funnel-shaped 
sieve,  and  left  to  drain  over  night.  A  small  quantity 
of  this  food  is  given  in  the  morning  and  evening.  Only 
the  true  German  rape  seed  is  fit  for  this  use. 


VEGETABLES 

Mangels.— Of  all  the  vegetables  and  roots  that  are 
fed  to  poultry  as  substitutes  for  green  foods,  mangels 
are  the  best;  they  are  fine-flavored,  sweet,  and  nutri- 
tious, and  impart  these  qualities  to  the  meat  and  eggs 
of  the  fowls.  No  objectionable  flavors  are  introduced 
into  either  the  flesh  or  the  eggs  as  a  result  of  feeding 
mangels  liberally.  Mangels  are  rank  growers,  keep 
well  throughout  the  winter  if  protected  from  frost,  are 
easily  fed,  and  are  freely  eaten  by  fowls. 

Beets.— There  are  many  kinds  of  beets,  all  of  which 
are  eaten  freely  by  poultry.  If  too  many  raw  beets 
are  fed,  however,  the  bowels  of  the  fowls  may  become 
so  loose  that  diarrhea  will  result,  especially  if  the 
use  of  beets  is  long  continued.  Raw  beets  should  be 
sparingly  fed,  but  if  they  are  cooked  they  make  a 
valuable  addition  to  a  ration. 

Turnips. — As  a  poultry  food,  turnips  are  not  so 
desirable  as  beets.  If  turnips  are  fed  raw,  they  taint 
the  flavor  of  the  eggs  and  do  not  improve  the  meat 


48  POULTRY  FOODS 

of  market  poultry.  The  rutabaga  is  the  best  variety 
of  turnip  for  poultry,  but  even  this  turnip  will  taint  the 
eggs  if  fed  to  any  extent.  Turnips,  parsnips,  and 
carrots,  when  boiled  to  a  pulp  and  mixed  with  the  mash 
feeds,  make  good  rations  for  all  kinds  of  poultry.  A 
very  little  salt  should  be  put  in  the  water  in  which 
the  vegetables  are  boiled.  Too  much  salt  will  kill 
poultry;  fowls  require  much  less  salt  than  men. 

Potatoes.— When  they  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  potatoes 
are  used  as  poultry  food;  5  Ib.  of  potatoes  is  about 
equal  in  feeding  value  to  1  Ib.  of  corn  meal.  Potatoes  fed 
to  laying  hens  are  thoroughly  boiled,  drained,  and  mixed 
with  wheat  bran,  middlings,  and  ground  oats;  the 
same  mixture  will  do  for  growing  chicks,  but  if  it  is  to 
be  used  for  fattening  purposes  some  corn  meal  is  added 
to  this  ration.  Meal  that  is  made  from  small  potatoes 
is  used  as  a  fattening  food;  this  meal  contains  all  the 
solid  food  of  the  potato  and  only  a  small  percentage 
of  the  original  moisture.  The  meal  is  an  easily  digested 
food,  and  it  is  used  where  potatoes  are  more  plentiful 
than  grain.  Raw  potatoes  are  not  fit  food  for  poultry. 

Onions. — Although  onions  are  wholesome  food  for  all 
kinds  of  fowls,  their  flavor  is  imparted  to  the  eggs 
and  meat  of  the  fowls  that  eat  them;  for  this  reason 
onions  should  not  be  used  when  their  flavor  will  prove 
objectionable.  Turnips,  onions,  and  potatoes  may  be 
boiled  together  and  used  in  mash  food  for  all  kinds 
of  poultry  without  harm,  provided  none  of  the  mixture 
is  fed  for  2  wk.  before  killing  the  fowls  for  market 
or  selling  their  eggs  for  food.  All  of  these  vegetables 
can  be  safely  used  for  hens  when  their  eggs  are  to  be 
used  for  hatching  and  not  for  food. 

Cabbage. — Although  not  the  best  thing  for  them, 
cabbage  is  a  favorite  food  of  fowls,  and  is  often  quite 
liberally  fed.  Cabbages  are  laxative,  especially  when 
they  have  been  frozen.  They  also  impart  an  odor  to 
eggs  that  detracts  from  their  quality.  If  cabbages  are 
permitted  to  freeze  and  are  carelessly  fed  they  may 
reduce  the  egg  yield  materially,  and  may  also  cause 


POULTRY  FOODS  49 

so  much  looseness  of  the  bowels  of  the  fowls  that  their 
health  will  be  injured.  Kale  and  Swiss  chard  can  be 
used  in  the  same  way  as  cabbages. 


GREEN  FOODS 

Green,  or  growing,  plants  are  valuable  as  food  for 
poultry  on  account  of  the  natural  juices  they  contain. 
The  tender  blades  of  grass  and  other  forage  plants 
impart  new  life  to  fowls  that  feed  on  them  in  the  spring. 
Chicks  can  be  grown  and  fowls  sustained  without  green 
food,  but  the  difference  between  those  that  have  it  in 
abundance  and  those  that  do  not  is  so  marked  that 
all  question  of  its  value  is  removed. 

Green  food  is  at  its  best  when  gathered  by  the  fowla 
from  the  field  where  it  grows,  but  good  results  may  be 
obtained  by  substituting  clover  hay  or  other  dried 
forage  for  the  green  portion  of  the  ration.  This  practice 
is  necessary  where  the  fowls  cannot  range  extensively 
and  whenever  there  is  no  available  green  food  owing 
to  climatic  or  other  conditions.  Fowls  must  have  a 
constant  supply  of  green  food. 

The  green  food  consumed  by  fowls  or  chicks  should 
not  be  considered  as  a  regular  portion  of  the  nutritive 
ration,  but  rather  as  a  supplement  to  the  grain  and 
animal  food.  The  composition  and  nutritive  ratio  of 
green  food  is  given  in  the  accompanying  table. 

Vegetable  Tops.— Poultry  relish  the  tops  of  vegetables 
as  green  food.  Trimmings  from  vegetables  and  the 
waste  from  fruit,  cabbage,  and  roots,  cut  into  small 
pieces,  boiled  to  a  pulp,  and  mixed  into  a  mash  of  meal, 
make  an  excellent  food  for  all  kinds  of  fowls,  both  old 
and  young. 

Grass.— Nearly  everywhere  grass  of  many  kinds 
grows  naturally  or  is  "cultivated  for  feeding,  grazing,  and 
hay  making,  and  none  of  the  green  foods  is  better  for 
poultry.  Where  grass  is  naturally  abundant,  a  supply 
of  green  food  is  always  at  hand  during  the  growing 
season.  But  green  food  for  winter  use  must  be  grown 


50 


POULTRY  FOODS 


COMPOSITION  AND   NUTRITIVE   RATIO 
OF  GREEN  FOODS 


Food 

Dry 

Matter 
Per 

Cent. 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 

Protein 
Per 
Cent. 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 
Per 
Cent. 

Fat 
Per 
Cent. 

Alfalfa  

20.0 
20.0 
21.0 
29.2 
19.3 
20.7 
16.4 
34.9 
28.9 
27.0 
37.8 
23.4 
14.3 
34.7 
28.5 
38.4 
27.0 
4.1 
20.0 
15.7 
11.3 
15.3 
11.4 
9.1 
11.7 
21.1 
9.1 
13.0 
19.7 
9.5 
15.9 
12.4 

3.7 
2.1 
1.9 
2.9 
2.2 
1.0 
1.7 
2.7 
1.9 
1.9 
2.4 
2.5 
2.2 
2.6 
2.8 
2.1 
.8 
1.0 
2.0 
1.6 
1.7 
1.8 
.8 
1.1 
1.6 
.9 
1.0 
1.2 
1.5 
1.0 
.4 
1.4 

7.3 
8.5 
10.2 
14.8 
9.3 
11.6 
8.8 
17.8 
15.6 
15.9 
17.9 
14.1 
8.6 
21.2 
11.8 
21.2 
13.8 
2.7 
16.8 
11.9 
4.6 
8.2 
7.8 
5.4 
11.2 
16.3 
5.8 
7.5 
.24.7 
7.2 
14.2 
9.4 

.6 
.7 
.4 
.7 
.4 
.4 
.3 
.7 
.4 
.6 
.9 
.4 
.3 
.6 
.6 
.6 
.4 
.8 
.2 
.1 
.1 
.4 
.2 
.1 
.2 
.1 
.3 
.2 
.4 
.2 
.3 
.5 

1      2.4 
1      4.8 
1       5.8 
1       5.7 
1      4.6 
1     12.5 
1       5.6 
1       7.2 
1      8.7 
1      9.1 
1       8.3 
1       6.0 
1      4.2 
1      8.7 
1      4.7 
1     10.8 
1     18.4 
1      4.5 
1      8.7 
1      7.6 
1      2.8 
1      5.1 
1     10.4 
1      5.1 
1      7.3 
1     18.3 
1       6.5 
1      6.7 
1     17.1 
1      7.7 
1     37.3 
1      7.5 

Alfilerilla  

Barley  

Red  clover  
Crimson  clover  .... 

Cowpeas 

Blue  grass  

Hungarian  grass  .  .  . 
Orchard  grass  
Oats  

Rve 

Rape     

Red  top 

Soybeans   

Timothy 

Kafir  corn  

Lettuce  

Artichokes  

Beets  

Beet  leaves  

Cabbage  

Carrots     

Al  angels 

Parsnips  

Potatoes 

Pumpkins  

Rutabagas 

Sweet  potatoes  .... 
Turnips     

Apples 

Onions  

POULTRY  FOODS  51 

and  stored,  and  in  some  places  the  supply  for  the  entire 
year  must  be  grown. 

Clippings  of  grass  from  the  lawn  are  also  good  food 
for  poultry  that  is  confined  in  yards;  or,  if  dried  and 
stored,  these  clippings  will  be  good  for  winter  use. 
Either  fresh  or  dry,  they  are  valuable  as  litter  for  the 
floor  of  the  brooder  or  brooder  house. 

Fodder  Corn.— Corn  that  is  sown  broadcast  or  drilled 
in  rows  produces  tender,  green  stalks  called  fodder  corn, 
which  is  relished  by  fowls  that  are  confined;  it 
is  not  preferred  by  fowls  having  their  freedom,  nor 
should  it  be  fed  after  it  has  passed  beyond  a  succulent 
or  juicy  condition. 

Alfalfa  and  Clover.— The  tender  leaves  of  all  the 
clovers  and  of  alfalfa  are  in  much  demand  by  fowls. 
They  probably  prefer  alfalfa,  or  lucerne,  to  clover. 
After  it  has  become  well  established,  alfalfa  will 
continue  to  grow  for  many  years  and  will  produce 
heavier  yields  of  green  forage  and  hay  than  any  of  the 
clovers.  To  raise  alfalfa  successfully,  the  soil  must 
be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  plant,  and  in  many 
localities  clover  can  be  raised  more  easily  than  alfalfa. 

During  winter  months,  clover  hay  can  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  green  food.  Hay  made  from  Red  clover 
is  most  frequently  used  for  this  purpose,  although  hay 
made  from  any  of  the  clover  plants  is  good  winter  food 
for  fowls.  It  may  be  used  as  litter  on  the  floor,  from 
which  the  fowls  will  help  themselves,  or  the  hay  may  be 
cut  into  small  pieces  and  placed  in  a  box  for  the  fowls 
to  work  over.  They  eat  all  the  leaves  of  clover  hay. 
Bright,  clean,  early-cut  hay  is  preferable  to  a  dark 
hay  made  from  cured  plants.'  Ground  clover  and  clover 
meal  may  also  be  used  as  food  for  poultry. 

Hay  made  from  alfalfa  is  extensively  used  for 
poultry,  and  it  may,  like  clover,  be  cut  into  pieces  or 
ground  into  a  fine  meal  before  feeding.  All  forms 
of  alfalfa  are  freely  eaten  both  by  old  and  young 
fowls,  and  alfalfa  is  not  equaled  by  any  other  hay  as 
a  substitute  for  green  food  for  fowls.  Meadow  hay  may 


52  POULTRY  FOODS 

be  ground   and  mixed  with  alfalfa  meal,  but  alfalfa  is 
best  fed  without  mixture  or  adulteration. 

Miscellaneous  Green  Crops  for  Winter  Feeding.— In 
addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  many  other  green 
crops  are  grown  for  winter  feeding.  A  mixture  of  oats, 
peas,  rape,  and  clover  planted  on  the  same  ground  and 
cut  while  green  makes  a  good  forage  crop  for  fowls. 
First,  sow  3  bu.  oats  and  2  bu.  peas  per  acre  and  harrow 
into  the  ground;  then,  seed  over  the  oats  and  peas 
with  a  mixture  of  6  qt.  clover  seed  and  1  qt.  German 
rape  seed. 

ANIMAL   FOODS 

MEAT  AND  MEAT  PRODUCTS 

Marked  success  in  producing  eggs  and  in  growing 
poultry  for  the  market  cannot  be  obtained  without  the 
use  of  some  animal  food. 

Insects  and  worms  form  an  important  part  of  the 
food  of  wild  birds  and  of  domestic  fowls  whenever  they 
are  permitted  to  range. 

Lean  Meat.— Meat  is  an  acceptable  substitute  for 
insects  and  worms.  Lean  meat  is  especially  useful 
in  the  feeding  of  laying  hens,  for  by  using  this  food 
much  protein  may  be  added  to  the  ration  without  in- 
creasing its  bulk  or  using  concentrated  foods  that 
impair  digestion.  The  carcasses  of  horses  and  cows 
are  composed  mainly  of  lean  meat  and  are  used  as 
poultry  food. 

Meat  Scrap. — There  are  two  kinds  of  meat  scrap, 
fat  and  lean.  The  latter  kind  contains  twice  as  much 
protein  as  carbohydrates,  while  the  former  contains  more 
fat  than  protein  and  very  little  ash.  The  best  lean- 
meat  scrap  should  be  selected  for  laying  hens;  the  more 
protein  and  the  less  fat  the  scrap  contains,  the  better 
it  is  for  the  hens.  Fat-meat  scraps  and  fat  or  tallow 
are  used  in  fattening  special  grades  of  table  poultry. 

Animal  Meal.— One  of  the  numerous  by-products  of  the 
slaughter  houses  is  animal  meal.  The  feeding  value 


POULTRY  FOODS  53 

of  animal  meal  is  higher  than  that  of  cut  green  bone;  but 
better  results  are  obtained  from  the  use  of  cut  green 
bone  than  from  animal  meal,  because  the  former  contains 
a  larger  percentage  of  ash  than  of  protein — presum- 
ably because  the  meal  is  made  from  both  bone  and  meat. 
Good  meat  meal  is  rich  in  protein  but  contains  less  ash 
than  animal  meal,,  and  can  only  be  used  sparingly  in 
making  an  egg-producing  ration.  Because  of  its  cost 
and  richness  in  protein,  meat  meal  is  used  only  when 
good  meat  scrap  cannot  be  obtained. 

Dried  Blood.— Dried  blood  and  blood  meal  are  some- 
times used  to  supply  protein  in  foods  for  poultry. 
These  blood  products  are  concentrated  foods  and  a 
small  quantity  of  either  mixed  with  other  foods  will 
make  a  narrow  ration.  Dried  blood  and  blood  meal 
are  not  generally  economical  or  profitable  foods  for 
poultry. 

Cut  Green  Bone.— The  food  commonly  called  cut 
green  bone  is  made  by  cutting  fresh  bones  into  small 
pieces  by  means  of  a  bone  mill.  Being  fresh  meat, 
bone,  and  fat,  its  composition  closely  resembles  that  of 
bugs  and  worms,  the  natural  food  of  fowls.  About 
J/2  oz.  of  cut  green  bone  per  day  for  each  fowl,  mixed 
with  wheat  bran,  will  make  a  balanced  ration  well  suited 
to  fowls. 

Tainted  Meat.— Tainted  meat  that  is  not  fit  for  human 
food  should  not  be  fed  to  fowls.  The  taint  of  such  food 
may  sometimes  be  removed  by  boiling  it  in  water 
containing  baking  soda,  in  which  case  the  meat  can  be 
safely  fed  to  fowls. 

Bone  Meal.— Bone  meal  consists  of  bones  of  animals 
cleaned  of  all  meat,  fat,  and  marrow,  and  reduced  to 
meal.  It  is  used  to  supply  any  deficiency  of  lime,  ash, 
or  bone-forming  material  that  exists  in  the  ration.  Bone 
meal  can  be  fed  to  young  chicks  to  produce  a  strong 
growth  of  bone.  The  particles  in  this  meal  vary  in 
size  from  those  that  are  very  small  to  those  of  the  size 
of  whole  wheat  or  even  corn;  the  largest  sizes  are  not 
desirable  for  poultry  food. 


54  POULTRY  FOODS 

Fish. — Fish  that  are  handled  for  their  oil  are  reduced 
in  presses  until  little  of  their  flesh  remains.  The  bone 
and  other  residue  are  then  ground  into  a  meal.  This 
fish  meal  and  dried  fish  are  sometimes  fed  to  poultry. 
Fish  products  are  liable  to  transmit  a  disagreeable 
flavor  to  the  eggs  or  meat,  and  for  this  reason  are  not 
desirable. 

MILE 

Milk  is  a  valuable  poultry  food,  more  valuable  than 
its  commercial  analysis  indicates.  Nothing  excels 
warm  milk  direct  from  the  cow  as  the  first  ration  for 
chicks.  The  use  of  whole  milk  as  a  chicken  feed, 
however,  will  rarely  prove  profitable,  for  even  when 
carefully  handled  it  is  not  worth  more  than  2c.  per  qt. 
for  this  purpose.  The  most  profitable  method  of  feeding 
milk  to  fowls  is  to  use  it  in  moistening  mash  feeds. 

Some  persons  prefer  sweet  milk  for  poultry,  but 
G.  A.  C.  Wyllie,  of  the  British  Dairy  Institute,  Reading, 
England,  says  that  sour  milk  has  been  found  to  give 
better  results,  as  the  acid  produced  by  the  bacteria 
present  causes  more  rapid  action.  He  states:  "Soured 
milk  also  prevents  scouring,  and  makes  the  food  easier 
digested.  The  acid  formed  from  the  milk  sugar  also 
prevents  sickness  and  stimulates  the  appetite.  It  keeps 
the  digestive  organs  in  proper  activity,  which  saves 
feeding  so  much  green  food.  When  fed  to  all  kinds 
of  poultry  it  produces  a  fine  white  flesh,  due  to  the 
amount  of  phosphates,  with  extra  good  flavor.  It  is  with- 
out doubt  one  of  the  best  foods  we  have  both  for  young 
and  old  stock,  and  is  becoming  more  popular  every 
day.  I  may  say  it  also  increases  the  egg  supply  and 
hastens  the  molt." 

Skim-milk,  sour  milk,  and  buttermilk,  may  be  im- 
proved for  feeding  purposes  by  scalding;  but  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  boil,  as  boiling  destroys  the  value 
and  palatability.  The  whey  of  milk  is  of  no  value 
as  a  poultry  feed.  In  the  accompanying  table  is  shown 
the  composition  and  nutritive  ratio  of  whole  milk  and 
of  various  milk  products. 


POULTRY  FOODS 


55 


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MINERAL  MATTER 

Grit.— The  food  eaten  by 
fowls  goes  first  into  the 
crop,  where  it  is  softened 
by  water;  it  then  passes 
into  the  gizzard,  and  by 
the  action  of  small  sharp 
stones,  or  grit,  is  there 
ground  into  a  pasty  mass. 
The  best  grit  is  sharp,  ir- 
regular pieces  of  hard 
limestone  about  the  size 
of  corn  kernels. 

Mineral  matter  is  neces- 
sary for  the  good  health 
of  the  fowls  and  for  egg- 
shell-forming material.  A 
deficiency  of  this  in  the 
regular  ration  may  be  sup- 
plied by  grit,  limestone, 
plaster,  broken  oyster 
shells,  or  shells  of  any 
kind.  Granulated  bone 
and  bone  meal  serve  the 
purpose  fairly  well,  but 
the  lime  in  shells  is  more 
quickly  dissolved  by  the 
action  of  grit  and  gizzard, 
and  hence  is  better  than 
the  bone. 

Charcoal.  —  Charcoal  is 
one  of  the  necessities  of 
poultry  feeding  and  should 
be  kept  constantly  before 
poultry;  it  assists  diges- 
tion, sweetens  the  crop, 
gizzard,  and  intestines,  and 
prevents  ailments  of  the 


56  POULTRY  FOODS 

digestive  tract.  The  charcoal,  which  should  be  broken 
into  small  pieces,  should  be  supplied  with  the  oyster 
shells  and  grit. 

Salt.— The  use  of  salt  in  poultry  food  is  not  a 
necessity;  but  when  a  forcing  ration  is  fed  to  fowls 
either  to  produce  broilers,  to  fatten  fowls,  or  to  produce 
eggs,  some  salt  may  be  used  to  assist  digestion;  8  oz. 
of  salt  to  100  Ib.  of  meal  is  enough  to  use;  much  more 
than  this  will  injure  the  digestion  of  grown  fowls, 
and  it  is  positively  unsafe  to  feed  more  to  young  chicks. 


POISONOUS   FOODS 

Fowls  sometimes  die  from  ptomaine  poisoning.  For 
this  reason  putrid  meat,  spoiled  grain,  and  other  fer- 
mented or  spoiled  foods  should  not  be  fed.  Foods  that 
are  otherwise  wholesome  may  be  made  unwholesome  if 
exposed  to  dampness,  due  to  the  development  of  molds. 

Excessive  quantities  of  salt,  salt  meat,  or  the  brine 
from  which  the  meat  has  been  removed,  salt  fish,  salt 
from  ice-cream  freezers,  and  in  fact,  salt  of  any  kind 
consumed  in  large  quantities  is  very  destructive  to 
poultry. 

Solutions  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  of  sulphuric  acid, 
carelessly  used,  are  very  destructive  to  poultry. 

Decayed  vegetables  or  fruits,  fermenting  waste,  waste 
from  cider  mills  or  canning  factories,  and  slops  from 
distilleries  are  not  suitable  for  feeding  to  laying  hens, 
because  they  flavor  the  eggs.  Tainted  meat  eaten  by 
a  fowl  will  also  influence  the  flavor  of  eggs. 

Moldy  bread  is  detrimental  to  poultry.  It  may  be 
freed  from  mold  by  toasting  or  baking  it  dry  and  hard, 
but  when  so  prepared  it  is  not  fit  food  for  chicks  under 
6  wk.  old. 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  57 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

In  poultry  feeding  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  provide 
fowls  with  a  ration  properly  balanced  in  the  food 
elements,  but  the  ration  must  also  be  of  a  character 
most  suitable  to  -the  digestive  organs  of  the  fowls. 
In  addition  to  this  the  fowls  must  be  forced  to  take 
sufficient  exercise  so  that  their  bodily  functions  will 
demand  a  plentiful  supply  of  food,  be  in  a  condition 
to  secure  the  best  results  from  the  food  that  is  eaten, 
and  be  able  to  eliminate  readily  all  waste  materials. 

When  fowls  take  sufficient  exercise,  the  only  secret  of 
keeping  their  digestive  organs  in  the  best  condition  will 
be  found  in  feeding  them  a  plentiful  supply  of  coarse 
feed  like  bran,  or  some  of  the  succulent  green  foods, 
such  as  cut  clover,  cut  grasses,  vegetables,  or  fruits. 
These  foods  will  distend  the  intestines  and  aid  in  dis- 
tributing the  concentrated  foods  that  are  necessary 
for  upbuilding  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  for  egg 
production.  To  induce  fowls  to  take  considerable 
exercise,  a  certain  part  of  their  grain  food  should  be 
scattered  in  the  litter  of  the  houses  and  on  the  ground 
of  the  ranges  so  that  they  will  be  compelled  to  scratch 
to  get  it. 

When  kept  actively  exercising,  fowls  will  not  eat  more 
than  their  digestive  organs  will  be  able  to  handle 
easily,  provided  fattening  foods  are  not  fed  in  excess 
and  the  ration  is  well  balanced  for  egg  production. 

Despite  the  necessity  of  a  certain  quantity  of  coarse 
food  to  regulate  their  digestive  organs,  fowls  must  be 
fed  as  little  indigestible  matter  as  is  consistent  with  the 
maintenance  of  their  health  and  of  a  well-balanced 
ration.  For  instance,  hens  cannot  thrive  on  a  ration 
made  up  entirely  of  even  the  best  grade  of  oats,  and 
when  oats  are  fed  that  are  three-fourths  husks,  all  the 
hens  can  possibly  stuff  themselves  with  will  do  little 
more  than  barely  sustain  life  and  will  produce  but 
few  eggs.  Chick  feed  and  feed  for  full-grown  fowls 


58 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


that  is  largely  indigestible  will  seriously  injure  those 
that  eat  it.  It  is  possible  for  chicks  and  full-grown 
fowls  to  dwindle  away  with  their  crops  stuffed  full  of 
indigestible  material.  The  fact  that  a  fowl's  crop  is 
distended  with  food  is  no  proof  that  it  has  been  well 
fed.  Hence,  the  only  actual  proof  of  the  value  of  any 
particular  feed  for  fowls  lies 
in  the  results  that  are  ob- 
tained from  it. 

As  a  part  of  the  daily  ra- 
tion, water  is  equal  in  im- 
portance to  grain.  Without 
water,  the  food  would  not  be 
softened  in  the  crop  and  di- 
gestion would  not  go  on. 
Blood,  eggs,  and  meat  are  all 
largely  water;  even  the  bones 
and  muscles  are  dependent  on 
moisture  for  growth.  Pure 
BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  water  is  an  absolute  necessity 
FEMALE  f°r  poultry;  if  the  drinking 

water    is    tainted,    putrid,    or 

contaminated  with  germs,  disease  is  sure  to  follow  its 
use.  A  gallon  of  fresh  water  each  day  is  not  too 
much  for  2  doz.  hens.  A  plentiful  supply  of  pure  water 
from  which  they  can  help  themselves  must  be  constantly 
kept  within  reach  of  fowls. 

The  composition  of  fowls  and  fresh  eggs  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  table.  The  large  percentage  of 
water  in  them  emphasizes  the  necessity  for  a  plentiful 
supply  of  water. 

Cost  of  Protein  in  Poultry  Foods.— As  protein  is  the 
most  expensive  food  principle  that  has  to  be  bought, 
and  as  there  is  a  variation  of  several  hundred  per  cent, 
between  the  cost  of  protein  in  some  foods  as  compared 
with  others,  care  should  be  taken  in  the  purchase  of 
foods  for  the  supply  of  this  valuable  food  principle.  The 
accompanying  table  will  aid  in  selecting  feeds  for 
their  protein  value.  The  feeds  are  arranged  in  the 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  59 

COMPOSITION    OF   FOWL   AND    EGG 


Water 
Per 
Cent. 


Ash 
Per 
Cent. 


Protein 
Per 

Cent. 


Fat 
Per 
Cent. 


Hen 

Pullet 

Capon.. . . 
Fresh  egg. 


55.8 
55.4 
41.6 
65.7 


3.8 

3.4 

3.7 

12.2 


21.6 
21.2 
19.4 
11.4 


17.0 

18.0 

33.9 

8.9 


COST  OF  PROTEIN  IN  POULTRY  FOODS 


Food 


Price 
per  Ton 
Dollars 


Protein 


Pounds 
per  Ton 


Price 

per  Pound 
Cents 


Skim -milk 4 

Rice 30 

Corn 30 

Oats 30 

Wheat 30 

Broken  crackers 26 

Mixed  feed 21 

Barley 25 

Rye 30 

Rice  bran 16 

Wheat  bran 21 

Wheat  shorts 22 

Wheat  middlings 27 

Wheat,  shrunken 29 

Alfalfa  hay 11 

Alfalfa  meal 22 

Coconut-oil-cake  meal ...  22 

Beans 

Fresh  meat 

Cottage  cheese 

Linseed -oil-cake  meal 27 

Gluten  meal 30 

Cottonseed  meal 30 

Meat  meal 60 

Dried  blood '60 


66 
106 
156 
184 
184 
190 
192 
192 
198 
214 
224 
244 
244 
264 
274 
274 
328 
400 
418 
518 
522 
680 
822 
1,080 
1,040 


6.0 

28.3 

19.2 

16.3 

16.3 

13.7 

10.9 

13.0 

15.1 

7.5 

9.3 

9.0 

11.0 

11.0 

4.0 

8.0 

6.7 


5.2 
4.4 
3.6 
5.6 
5.8 


60 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


order  of  the  quantity  of  protein  they  contain  per  ton. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  factor  does  not  fix  the  price 
of  the  feed,  as  rice  at  the  same  price  as  gluten  feed 


WEIGHT  OF  POULTRY  FOODS  PER   QUART 


Food 


Alfalfa  meal 

Barley,  whole 

Barley  meal 

Beans 

Beef 

Buckwheat 

Corn,  whole 

Corn  meal 

Corn  bran 

Corn  and  oat  food 

Cottonseed  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Gluten  meal 

Hemp  seed 

Hominy  chop 

Kafir  corn 

Linseed  meal,  new  process. . . 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Millet 

Oats,  whole 

Oats,  ground 

Peas 

Rice 

Rye,  whole 

Rye,  ground 

Sunflower  seed 

Salt 

Shorts 

Wheat,  whole 

Wheat,  ground 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) . 
Wheat  middlings  (flour) 


contains  less  than  one-sixth  as  much  protein  as 
gluten  feed.  In  selecting  poultry  feeds,  however,  price 
is  not  the  only  consideration.  Due  regard  must  be  paid 


FEED IX G  OF  FOWLS 


61 


to  the  character  of  the  feed.  Coconut-oil-cake  meal, 
and  linseed-oil-cake  meal  can  be  purchased  at  a  price 
that  makes  the  cost  of  the  protein  low,  but  it  would 
not  be  feasible  to  obtain  a  large  part  of  the  protein 
for  a  ration  from  these  feeds. 

Weight  of  Poultry  Foods  per  Quart.— In  the  mixing 
of  rations  for  poultry  the  weights  of  poultry  foods  per 
quart  as  given  in  the  preceding  table  are  useful. 


FEEDING    OF   YOUNG   CHICKS 

No  food  is  given  to  young  chicks  for  the  first  48  hr., 
but  grit  of  some  kind  is  supplied  to  clean  out 
their  digestive  organs.  Beginning  with  the  third  day, 
they  may  have  stale  bread  moistened  with  sweet  milk 
and  pressed  until  nearly  dry.  For  the  next  2  or  3  da. 
a  mixture  of  stale  bread  crumbs  and  fine  oatmeal 
makes  a  good  ration,  and  is  better  fed  in  small  quan- 
tities at  frequent  intervals. 

For  chicks  that  are  a  week  or  more  old,  a  simple 
ration  can  be  made  of  4  parts,  by  weight,  of  cracked 

FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  YOUNG  CHICKS 


Quantity  per  100  Lb.  of 
Live  Weight  of  Chicks 

^   ?? 

> 

Age  of  Chick 

>>       w 

1 

"3  .g 

ij 

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'£  *§ 

43  'c 

^  8*0 

o-S  c 

*S   c 

S  (3 

3  « 

Q|  § 

2  § 

£    o 

U2  <tf  3 

•<   3 

PH 

O      ^ 

First  2  wk.  .  . 

10.1 

2.0 

.4 

7.2 

.5 

18,800 

1  to  4.1 

2  to    4  wk.  . 

9.6 

2.2 

.5 

6.2 

.7 

17,730 

1  to  3.4 

4  to    6  wk.  . 

8.6 

2.0 

.4 

5.6 

.6 

15,640 

1  to  3.3 

6  to    8  wk.  . 

7.4 

1.6 

.4 

4.9         .5 

13,780 

i  to  3.7 

8  to  10  wk.  . 

6.4 

1.2 

.3 

4.4         .5 

11,680 

1  to  4.3 

10  to  12  wk.  . 

5.4 

1.0 

.3 

3.7 

.4 

'10,000 

1  to  4.4 

62 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


corn,  2  parts  of  broken  wheat,  2  parts  of  oatmeal,  and 
2  parts  of  granulated  meat  scrap.  The  corn  should  be 
broken  into  small  pieces  and  the  meat  scrap  must  be 
of  good  quality,  rich  in  protein,  and  of  small  size;  meat 
scrap  that  contains  fat  is  not  fit  to  use  in  this  ration. 
After  the  chicks  are  6  wk.  old,  a  ration  made  of 
cracked  corn,  whole  wheat,  hulled  oats,  and  meat 
scrap  can  be  used.  In  addition  to  the  grain  and  meat 
ration,  grit,  green  food,  broken  sea  shells,  or  bone 
meal  are  necessary  for  young  chicks.  All  food  fed  to 
chicks  should  be  in  small  particles  to  avoid  disorders  in 
the  crop  and  digestive  organs. 

The   accompanying   table   gives   the   feeding   standards 
for  young  chicks. 


MIXTURES  FOR  CHICK  FOOD 


Food 


(a) 


Quarts 


Shelled  corn  16 

Wheat    8 

Hulled  oats   4 

Pearl  barley  3 

Millet   seed 5 


c<6 

Fine    siftings    from 

cracked  corn   40 

Cracked  wheat  30 

Oatmeal    10 

Millet  seed  3 

Granulated  meat  ...  7 


to 

Cracked  corn  50 

Whole  wheat  50 

Clipped  oats  30 

Barley    10 


Food 


Quarts 

5 


Millet  seed 

Cracked  Kafir  corn.  1 

Cracked  wheat  .....  2 

Canary  seed  ........  1 

Oatmeal    ............  1 

Finely       granulated 
meat  ...............  5 

00 

Fine  broken  corn...  35 

Cracked  Kafir  corn.  6 

Cracked  wheat  .....  40 

Hulled  oats  ........  30 

Broken  peas  ........ 

Animal  charcoal  ...  5 

Millet  seed  .........  5 

Meat  scrap  .........  10 


Cracked  corn  .......  200 

Whole   wheat   ......  300 

Barley    ..............  200 

Clipped  oats    .......  100 

Screenings    .........  200 

Buckwheat    .........  100 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  63 

Mixing  of  Chick  Foods.— The  term  chick  food  is  used 
to  describe  mixtures  made  from  food  materials  that  are 
used  for  feeding  chicks.  Many  kinds  are  manufactured 
and  sold  commercially;  if  they  are  of  good  quality, 
their  use  may  be  convenient  and  safe.  Chick  food  can 
be  made  of  numerous  kinds  of  grains  and  seeds.  Any 
of  the  mixtures  given  in  the  accompanying  table  form 
suitable  chick  foods.  After  the  grains  in  (a)  have 
been  ground  and  mixed,  4  qt.  of  beef  sci-aps  should 
be  added  to  the  mixture;  (a)  is  adapted  to  chicks  having 
the  free  range  of  a  farm;  (£>)  is  for  bantams  or  chicks 
of  tender  constitution;  (c)  and  (d)  are  for  those  partly 
or  wholly  confined;  (e)  and  (/)  are  grain  mixtures 
suitable  for  half-grown  chicks  on  the  range. 

Feeding  Schedule  for  Chicks.— Chicks  thrive  best  if  fed 
five  times  a  day  until  they  are  6  wk.  old,  after  which 
age  they  may  be  fed  four  times  daily;  and  at  8  wk. 
of  age,  three  meals  a  day  are  sufficient.  The  following 
schedule  may  be  observed  in  feeding  five  meals  a 
day: 

First  Meal.— Soon  after  daylight.  Bread  crumbs,  seed, 
or  small  grain,  according  to  age. 

Second  Meal. — Eight  or  nine  o'clock.  Egg  food,  mash 
feed,  or  chick  feed,  according  to  age. 

Third  Meal. — Noon.  Small  grains  or  chick  feed, 
scattered  into  chaff  or  dry  litter  of  some  kind. 

Fourth  Meal. — Two  o'clock.  Either  egg  food,  mash 
feed,  bread  softened  with  milk,  or  johnny  cake. 

Fifth  Meal.— Four  o'clock.  A  full  meal  of  small  grain 
or  chick  feed,  scattered  in  the  chaff  or  litter. 

The  small  grains  and  chick  feed  should  be  scattered 
in  dry  chaff  or  cut  straw.  Fine  or  short-cut  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay  makes  good  litter;  sand,  sawdust,  or  chips 
of  wood  are  undesirable  litter  for  chicks.  Clean,  dry 
earth  may  also  be  safely  used  for  litter. 


64 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


FEEDING  OF  LAYING  HENS 

A  ration  for  laying  hens  is  not  suitable  unless  it 
contains  enough  of  the  food  principles  to  maintain  the 
bodily  growth  and  to  supply  enough  material  for  the 
production  of  eggs;  that  is,  protein,  fats,  carbohydrates, 
ash,  and  water  must  be  plentifully  supplied  and  in 
the  proper  proportions. 

Quantity  of  Food  Required  by  One  Hen  in  a  Year. 
The  figures  for  the  quantity  of  food  required  by  one 
hen  in  a  year  given  in  the  accompanying  table  were 
derived  from  careful  records  of  the  food  eaten  by  several 
hundred  hens  in  a  year.  They  show  a  total  average 
of  about  4.86  oz.,  or  a  little  less  than  4  oz.  of  grain 
and  meal,  and  about  *Ho  oz.  of  other  material  per  day 
for  each  hen.  Another  test  of  4,800  hens  shows  a  food 
consumption  of  3.96  oz.  of  grain  per  day,  besides  green 
food  and  grit. 

QUANTITY    OF    FOOD    REQUIRED    BY    ONE    HEN 
IN  A  YEAR 


Food 

Quantity 
Pounds 

Grain  <~>f  all  kinds  and  mpal 

900 

Oyster  shell  and  bone  

6.4 

Grit  

20 

Charcoal  

2.4 

Green  food  and  clover  hay  

10.0 

Total  

110.8 

Cost    of    Feeding    One    Hundred    Hens    for   a    Month. 

The    following    figures    show    the    cost    of    feeding    100 
Barred    Plymouth    Rock    hens    per    month.     The    figures 
are    taken    from    the    record   of   Mrs.    Fred    G.    Orne,    of  • 
Orleans,  Vt.,  and  are  based  on  the  present  high  prices 
of  grain. 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  65 

Clover    $1.12 

Wheat    2.28 

Oats    1.52 

Corn    3.84 

Dry   mash    3.11 

Beef   scrap    73 

Grit,  shells,   turnips   50 

Straw     53 


Total $13.63 

The  total  cost  of  feed  for  the  100  hens  for  the  12  mo. 
of  the  year  was  $163.56,  which  gives  a  cost  per  hen 
per  year  of  $1.63^.  During  the  year  the  hens  produced 
an  average  of  130  eggs,  or  10i%2  doz.  These  were  sold 
for  an  average  of  30c.  per  doz.,  making  the  value  of  the 
eggs  produced  $3.25  per  hen.  This  gives  a  profit  of 
$1.61^2  per  hen  over  the  feeding  cost. 

Feeding  Schedule  for  Laying  Hens.— The  following 
feeding  schedule  adapted  to  the  needs  of  a  flock  of  500 
Single-Comb  White  Leghorns  has  been  used  successfully 
on  a  large  commercial  poultry  farm  for  a  number  of 
years.  The  same  feeding  schedule  may  be  adapted  to 
any  conditions  or  to  any  number  of  fowls  by  pro- 
portionate increases  or  decreases  in  the  quantities  of 
each  item  fed. 

FEEDING   SCHEDULE   FOR  500  FOWLS 
7  A.  M.      Wet    Mash.— About    31    qt.    (fed    in    troughs    in 

house)  made  up  as  follows: 
Ingredients  Quarts 

Steamed  clover   5 

Wheat  middlings   5 

Corn   meal    7J4 

Bran 7l/t 

Meat  scrap   3J4 

Linseed  meal   1 

Charcoal & 

Oyster  shell   V\ 


66  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

This  mash  is  moistened  with  sufficient  water 
to  make  it  sticky,  not  thin. 

9  A.  M.  Scratch  Feed.— About  8  qt.  (fed  in  yards,  ex- 
cept on  rainy  days,  when  it  is  fed  in  the 
litter  of  the  houses).  This  is  barley  one 
day  and  hulled  oats  the  next. 

11  A..  M.  Green  Feed.— About  16  qt.  or  */2  bu.  (fed  in 
either  the  yard  or  house  according  to  the 
weather)  made  up  of  any  succulent  food,  such 
as  beets,  beet  tops,  turnips,  turnip  tops,  cab- 
bage, lettuce,  or  any  plant  that  is  bulky  enough 
so  that  the  fowls  can  get  a  foothold  on  it 
while  eating.  Vegetables  and  similar  plants 
need  not  be  chopped  up,  but  lawn  grass,  rye, 
clover,  or  anything  of  this  nature  it  is  ad- 
visable to  cut  into  ?4-in.  lengths. 

1  P.  M.  Scratch  Feed.— About  8  qt.  (fed  in  the  same 
way  as  in  the  morning  scratch  feed)  made  up 
of  equal  quantities  of  wheat  and  barley,  or 
of  wheat  and  hulled  oats.  If  hulled  oats 
are  used  in  the  morning  scratch  feed,  barley 
should  be  used  in  the  afternoon,  and  vice 
versa. 

5  P.  M.  (or  1  hr.  before  sundown).  Grain  Feed.— About 
30  qt.  or  all  the  fowls  will  eat  and  a  little 
left  over  (fed  in  troughs  in  houses).  On 
rainy  days  when  the  fowls  are  confined  to 
the  house  it  is  well  to  scatter  this  feed  in 
the  litter  in  order  to  provide  the  necessary 
exercise.  The  feed  is  made  up  of  a  mixture 
of  cracked  corn  and  wheat.  The  proportions 
of  corn  and  wheat  vary  with  the  seasons. 
In  May,  June,  July,  and  Aug.  the  proportion 
is  two-thirds  wheat  and  one-third  cracked 
corn.  As  the  weather  becomes  cooler  the 
quantity  of  corn  should  be  increased  and  the 
quantity  of  wheat  decreased.  For  in- 
stance, if  the  temperature  is  likely  to  drop 
as  low  as  40°  F.  during  the  night,  the 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  67 

ration  should  be  one-half  cracked  corn  and 
one-half  wheat.  If  it  is  likely  to  drop  to 
32°  F.,  the  ration  should  be  two-thirds 
cracked  corn  and  one-third  wheat.  On  ex- 
ceptionally cold  days,  when  the  thermometer 
is  down  to  zero  and  below,  the  entire  ration 
should  'be  cracked  corn. 

AT  ALL  HOURS.  Water.— A.  plentiful  supply  and  fresh, 
either  in  drinking  fountains  or  in  some  other 
convenient  way. 

Dry  Mash. — Fed  in  hoppers   in   the   houses,   and 

made   up   the   same    as   the   wet   mash,    except 

that  the  steamed  clover  and  linseed  meal  are 

left  out. 

Meat  Scrap. — Fed  from  wall  hoppers   inside   the 

houses. 
Grit,  Oyster  Shells,  and  Charcoal.— Fed  from  wa!L 

hoppers  inside  of  the  house. 

Cornell  Rations  for  Laying  Hens.— The  following 
whole-grain  mixture  is  fed  morning  and  afternoon  in 
a  straw  litter: 

DURING  WINTER 
Food  Pounds  Food  Quarts 

Wheat     60  Wheat   32 

Corn     60  Corn    36 

Oats     30  Oats    30 

Buckwheat     30  Buckwheat    20 

DURING  SUMMER 

Wheat   60          Wheat    32 

Corn 60  Corn     36 

Oats    30  Oats    30 

The  following  mash  is  fed  dry  in  a  hopper  during 
winter  and  summer,  the  hopper  being  kept  open  during 
the  afternoon  only. 


Food 
Corn  meal         

Pounds 
60 

Food                      ( 

Quarts 
57 

Wheat    middlings    . 
Wheat   bran    

60 
30 

Wheat     middlings 
Wheat   bran    

71 

57 

Alfalfa  meal  

10 

Alfalfa    meal    .... 

20 

Oil  meal   

10 

8 

50 

Meat    scrap     

43 

Salt    . 

1 

Salt    

'/a 

68  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

The  fowls  should  eat  about  half  as  much  mash  by 
weight  as  whole  grain.  Regulate  the  proportion  of 
grain  and  ground  feed  by  giving  a  light  feeding  of 
grain  in  the  morning  and  about  all  they  will  consume 
at  the  afternoon  feeding  (in  time  to  find  grain  before 
dark).  In  the  case  of  pullets  or  fowls  in  heavy  lay- 
ing, restrict  both  night  and  morning  feeding  to  induce 
heavy  eating  of  dry  mash,  especially  in  the  case  of 
hens.  This  ration  should  be  supplemented  with  beets, 
cabbage,  sprouted  oats,  green  clover,  or  other  succulent 
food,  unless  running  on  grass-covered  range.  Grit, 
cracked  oyster  shell,  and  charcoal  should  be  ac- 
cessible at  all  times.  Green  food  should  not  be  fed  in 
a  frozen  condition.  All  feed  and  litter  used  should  be 
strictly  sweet,  clean,  and  free  from  mustiness,  mold, 
or  decay.  Serious  losses  frequently  occur  from  disease, 
due  to  the  fowls  taking  into  their  bodies,  through  their 
intestinal  tract  or  lungs,  the  spores  of  the  fungus 
causing  molds. 

Rations  for  Sixteen  Hens  for  30  Da.— The  ac- 
companying table  contains  twelve  desirable  rations  for 
feeding  to  hens.  The  quantities  given  in  each  division 
are  sufficient  for  feeding  16  hens  for  30  da.,  and  pro- 
vide about  4  oz.  of  food  daily  for  each  hen.  The  whole 
grain  in  all  these  rations  is  fed  by  hand;  the  meal 
and  meat  in  each  is  mixed  together  and  fed  either 
as  a  wet  or  a  dry  mash.  Rations  (t)  and  (/)  are 
double,  or  two-part,  rations.  One-half  of  the  daily 
ration  is  fed  from  each;  the  two  answer  for  60  da. 
Rations  (a),  (&),  (c),  and  (d)  are  best  suited  to  a 
promiscuous  lot  of  fowls  ranging  in  age  from  6  mo.  to 
several  years.  Rations  (e),  (/),  (#),  and  (/t),  being 
largely  composed  of  concentrated  foods,  are  best  suited 
for  laying  hens.  Rations  (f)  and  (/)  are  for  laying 
hens  that  have  free  range  and  are  able  to  pick  up 
insects  enough  to  supply  their  demand  for  animal  food. 
Rations  (f)  and  (fc)  are  fed  in  hoppers  as  dry  mash. 
The'  molasses  feed  used  should  be  of  good  quality. 
Ration  (/)  consists  of  meals,  wheat,  and  milk;  the  meals 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


69 


30-DAY  RATIONS  FOR  SIXTEEN  HENS 
Food 


Food 

Poun* 

(a) 

Corn    

50 

Oats  or  barley    

24 

10 

Middlings    " 

5 

Corn   meal    

25 

Meat    scrap     

8 

Cut  clover   

10 

to 

Corn     

50 

Wheat     

25 

Corn   meal    

28 

Elour  middlings   ... 

2 

Hominy   chop   

10 

Meat  scrap  

7 

Cut   clover   

10 

(M 

Alfalfa      hay      or 

meal    

18 

Wheat    bran    

10 

Middlings    

30 

Coconut-o  i  1-c  a  k  e 

meal    

10 

Meat  meal   

6 

Wheat    

60 

(0) 

Corn   meal    

24 

Wheat    bran    

18 

Alfalfa    meal    

10 

Blood   meal    

3 

Meat    meal    

6 

Oats    or    barley  

30 

Wheat     :  

40 

(0 

Wheat   bran    

40 

Middlings     

20 

Corn   meal    

20 

Alfalfa    meal    

40 

(*) 

Corn   meal    

10 

Molasses   feed   

20 

Middlings    
Wheat    bran    

40 
30 

Meat    scrap     

10 

Clover   hay    

10 

Pounds 


Corn     

50 

Oats  or  barley    .  . 

24 

Wheat  bran  

10 

Flour   middlings.. 

4 

Corn   meal    

28 

Animal  meal  

7 

Cut  clover   

10 

(<*) 

Corn    

50 

W7heat    

25 

Corn   meal    

25 

Wheat   bran    

10 

Middlings    

5 

Alfalfa  meal  

4 

Meat   scrap    

7 

Alfalfa    

18 

Wheat   bran    

14 

Middlings    
Linseed-o  i  1-cake 

17 

meal    

6 

4 

Barley  or  oats.... 

25 

Wheat    

50 

(*) 

\Vheat   shorts    .... 

18 

Corn   meal    

25 

Blood  meal    

5 

Alfalfa  meal   

5 

Cottage   cheese    .  . 
Wheat   

12 
60 

Wheat    .;  

60 

Cracked  corn   

30 

Oats     

15 

Barley    

15 

Middlings    

30 

Wheat    bran    

24 

6 

90 

Wheat    

60 

70  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

should  be  moistened  with  the  milk.  In  the  use  of  all 
rations  where  meals  only  are  mentioned,  a  daily  ration 
for  each  hen  should  consist  of  2  oz.  of  dry  meal, 
fed  wet  or  dry,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  whole 
grain. 

None  of  these  rations  furnish  sufficient  mineral  matter 
for  egg  formation  and  for  the  other  demands  of  nature. 
Grit,  limestone,  oyster  shell,  or  some  similar  material 
must  be  supplied  in  addition. 

Feeding  of  Farm  Flocks.— Farm  flocks,  to  be  profit- 
able, must  have  a  ration  suitable  for  the  production 
of  both  eggs  and  good  table  meat.  No  error  in 
feeding  farm  flocks  is  more  common  or  more  disas- 
trous than  that  of  giving  too  much  fat-forming  food. 
An  all-green  ration  renders  the  hens  excessively  fat, 
sometimes  induces  apoplexy,  and  causes  the  production 
of  but  few  eggs.  A  grain  ration  for  farm  flocks  may  be 
composed  of  grains  in  the  following  proportions,  by 
weight: 

Food  Parts 

Cracked   corn    20 

Wheat 40 

Oats 15 

Cracked  corn  is  preferable  because  it  is  small,  and, 
like  wheat  and  oats,  when  cast  into  litter  must  be  sought 
for  by  the  fowls.  During  the  winter  all  grain  should 
be  thrown  into  dry  chaff  or  litter  of  some  kind  in  order 
to  keep  the  hens  busy  hunting  for  it. 

During  the  winter  months  the  hens  on  the  farm  should 
have  a  noonday  feed  of  warm  mash,  the  mixture  being 
composed,  by  weight,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn   meal    40 

Meat    30 

Short-cut  alfalfa  or  clover  hay 30 

Oyster   shell 2 

Grit     1 

Charcoal     1 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  71 

The  meat  and  hay  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces 
and  boiled  to  a  pulp,  and  before  cooling  the  mass  should 
be  mixed  with  enough  meal  to  make  a  dry,  crumbly 
mass.  This  should  be  fed  cool  in  troughs. 

FEEDING   OF  FOWLS  DURING  MOLT 

Fowls  that  are  molting  should  have  good  nourishing 
food  in  order  properly  to  nourish  their  bodies  while 
they  are  under  the  unusual  strain  of  replenishing  the 
plumage.  Foods  rich  in  fat  and  protein  are  best  for 
the  purpose;  hence,  during  molting,  a  mash  that  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  linseed-oil-cake  meal  and  meat 
is  particularly  desirable. 

In  the  morning,  molting  fowls  should  have  a  moderate 
meal  composed  of  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  cracked 
corn  and  whole  wheat. 

At  noon  they  should  have  all  they  will  eat  of  mash 
composed,  by  measure,  of  the  following: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat    bran    4 

Wheat  middlings   . .'. 3 

Ground   oats    3 

Meat    scrap    4 

Corn    meal    3 

Linseed-oil-cake  meal    4 

Low-grade    flour    1 

Alfalfa  meal   2 

During  the  first  week  of  the  molting  period  this 
ration  should  contain  only  1  part  each  of  meat  scrap 
and  linseed-oil-cake  meal;  after  the  first  week  the 
quantities  of  these  materials  should  be  increased  at 
the  rate  of  */2  part  per  day  every  other  day  until  the 
quantities  given  in  the  table  have  been  reached.  In 
case  such  a  ration  proves  to  be  too  laxative,  the 
quantity  of  meat  and  linseed  meal  is  lessened  and 
%  part  of  fine  charcoal  is  added  to  the  mixture. 

At  night  all  the  corn  meal  and  wheat  they  will  eat 
is  fed  to  the  fowls. 


72  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

This  method  of  feeding  should  be  continued  until 
the  molt  is  complete,  after  which  a  laying  ration  is 
fed  to  the  hens. 

Attempts  to  force  molting  are  occasionally  successful, 
but  the  advantages  derived  from  this  practice  do  not 
usually  pay  for  the  trouble  caused.  To  force  molting, 
fowls  are  confined  in  a  small  house  for  about  3  wk., 
are  fed  very  sparingly,  but  all  the  fresh  water  they  will 
drink  is  given  to  them.  The  quantity  of  food  given 
should  be  gradually  reduced  until  at  the  end  of  the 
first  week  they  are  receiving  only  about  one-third  of  the 
usual  food  supply.  During  the  second  and  third  weeks 
not  more  than  1  oz.  of  grain,  or  one-fourth  of  a  ration, 
should  be  fed  per  day  to  each  fowl.  This  partial  starva- 
tion will  reduce  flesh  and  fat  and  dry  the  oil  from  the 
feathers,  causing  them  to  drop  very  readily.  At  the 
end  of  the  third  week  the  fowls  should  be  liberated 
and  the  food  supply  gradually  increased.  By  the  end 
of  the  fourth  week  they  should  receive  full  rations. 


FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  FOR  MARKET 

Fowls  intended  for  market  are  commonly  fattened, 
or  finished,  according  to  one  of  three  systems:  Range 
fattening,  yard  fattening,  and  crate  fattening.  As 
employed  on  many  farms,  these  systems  may  be  more 
accurately  termed  stages  of  the  fattening  process,  for 
the  reason  that  often  no  particular  one  of  the  systems 
is  rigidly  adhered  to  on  any  one  farm.  For  instance, 
some  fowls  are  simply  range-fattened  before  killing; 
in  other  cases  the  fattening  process  is  carried  further 
and  the  fowls  are  more  completely  fattened  by  a  more 
or  less  protracted  period  of  feeding  in  yards  or  in 
crates.  The  degree  of  success  attained  in  fattening 
depends  on  two  things,  namely,  the  quantity  of  fat- 
tening food  that  is  fed  to  the  fowls  and  the  amount 
of  exercise  they  are  allowed  to  take. 

Range  fattening  consists  simply  in  giving  the  fowls 
a  quantity  of  fattening  food  for  a  few  weeks  to 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  73 

increase  their  weight  to  some  extent  before  they  are 
killed  for  market.  In  yard  fattening,  fattening  foods 
are  given  to  fowls  as  in  range  fattening,  but,  as  their 
exercise  is  materially  restricted,  there  is  a  greater 
gain  in  weight,  and  the  quality  of  the  flesh  is  also 
improved  by  the  softening  of  the  muscles.  The  very 
best  grades  of  market  poultry,  however,  are  finished 
by  crate  fattening.  By  confining  fowls  in  crates,  or 
coops,  exercise  is  almost  wholly  prevented.  All  the 
fattening  food  that  they  will  consume  is  given  to  them, 
and,  as  a  final  step,  forced  feeding  is  sometimes  re- 
sorted to. 

Feeding  of  Fowls  in  Fattening  Yards.— Fowls  confined 
in  fattening  yards  should  be  fed  three  times  a  day 
and  should  have  all  the  food  they  will  eat  up  clean. 
The  food  should  consist  of  mash,  cracked  corn,  wheat, 
and  some  animal  food.  The  mash  should  be  made  of 
2  parts  of  finely  ground  oats  or  barley  from  which  the 
hulls  have  been  removed,  2  parts  of  corn  meal,  and  1  part 
of  wheat  middlings,  all  mixed  with  hot  milk  or  boiling 
water.  Milk  is  preferred  to  water  for  mixing,  and  the 
mash  should  always  be  fed  while  moist  and  warm. 

A  full  meal  of  the  mash  is  fed  in  the  morning  and 
at  noon.  At  night  the  fowls  should  have  a  grain  mixture 
consisting  of  equal  parts  of  cracked  corn,  wheat,  and 
hulled  oats.  No  meat  will  be  needed  during  the  first 
week  if  the  mash  is  mixed  with  milk.  After  the  first 
week,  5%  of  the  mash  should  consist  of  meat,  and 
some  fat  can  also  be  added  to  it.  The  meat  must 
always  be  sweet  and  clean  and  free  from  bad  odors. 
Green  food  is  not  needed.  Water  and  grit  must  be 
kept  before  the  fowls  continually. 

Feeding  of  Fowls  in  Crates.— In  crate  fattening,  the 
methods  of  feeding  most  generally  followed  are: 
trough  feeding,  hand  stuffing,  funnel  feeding,  and 
machine  cramming.  The  last  three  are  methods  of 
forced  feeding,  but  machine  cramming  is  the  only  one 
of  importance  to  the  poultryman  who  is  producing  a 
large  number  of  well-fattened  fowls. 


74  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

In  trough  feeding,  the  fowls  are  fed  three  times, 
whereas  in  hand  stuffing,  funnel  feeding,  and  machine 
cramming,  all  three  of  which  are  finishing  processes, 
the  fowls  are  fed  twice  a  day. 

When  first  placed  in  the  crates,  the  fowls  should 
remain  without  food  for  a  day;  then  they  are  fed  in 
troughs  as  long  as  they  retain  an  appetite  for  the 
food;  after  this  point  is  reached,  they  are  usually 
finished  off  by  machine  cramming. 

One  ration  recommended  for  trough  feeding  is  com- 
posed by  measure,  not  by  weight,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Ground   oats    2 

Ground  barley 1 

Ground    corn 1 

Hand  stuffing  is  very  seldom  followed  at  the  present 
time,  particularly  in  America.  It  consists  of  pushing 
boluses,  or  small  rounded  masses  of  food,  into  the  crops 
of  fowls  that  are  to  be  quickly  fattened.  Boluses  1 
in.  long  and  about  y2  in.  thick  are  moistened  with 
milk  and  worked  into  the  crop  of  the  fowl  by  inserting 
them  in  the  throat  or  gullet  of  the  fowl  and  then  running 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  down  the  outside  of  the 
throat.  This  work  must  be  done  gently  to  avoid 
choking  the  fowl. 

Funnel  feeding  consists  in  pouring  liquid  food  or 
gruel  of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream  through  a 
funnel  into  the  crop  of  the  fowl.  In  employing  this 
method  of  feeding,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
choking  or  otherwise  injuring  the  fowl.  Specially  made 
funnels  with  the  ends  turned  over  and  so  shaped  as 
to  lessen  this  danger  may  be  purchased.  The  funnel 
is  gently  pushed  down  the  throat  or  gullet  of  the  fowl 
into  the  mouth  of  the  crop.  The  different  positions  of 
the  tip  of  the  funnel  as  it  passes  down  through  the 
gullet  must  be  followed  with  the  point  of  the  finger 
on  the  outside  of  the  neck.  After  the  tip  of  the  funnel 
has  entered  the  crop,  the  gruel  is  poured  into  the 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 


75 


funnel   with   a   spoon.     As   soon   as   the   crop   is   full    the 
funnel   is  removed. 

Machine  cramming  is  the  most  approved  process  of 
finishing  fowls  for  market  after  they  have  been  partly 
fattened  in  crates  by  trough  feeding.  It  is  performed 
by  means  of  a  device  known  as  a  cramming  machine. 
One  of  these  machines  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration;  it  is  supplied  with  a  reservoir  from  which 
the  liquid  food  used  passes  into  the  force  pump.  In 


using  this  machine,  the  operator  places  his  foot  on  the 
treadle  and  forces  it  down,  thus  pulling  the  pump  rod 
attached  to  a  bumper  inside  the  force  pump  and  forcing 
the  food  through  an  outlet  into  the  crop  of  the  fowl. 
The  quantity  of  food  given  to  each  fowl  is  regulated 
by  a  setscrew. 

The  fattening  rations  best  suited  for  feeding  by 
the  cramming  machine,  but  which  may  also  be  used  in 
other  methods  of  crate  feeding,  are  given  in  the 


76  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

accompanying  table.  All  the  meals  used  should  be 
ground  as  fine  as  wheat  flour;  coarse  meals,  fiber,  or 
husks  will  not  answer  for  any  form  of  crate  feeding. 
The  rations  (a),  (b),  (c),  and  (d)  are  all  suited  for  use 
when  yellow-meated  fowls  are  desired;  mixture  (e) 
will  produce  white-meated  fowls,  and  mixture  (/) 
is  for  use  in  the  cramming  machine  during  the  last 
week  of  feeding.  The  formula  best  suited  for  any 
given  locality  should  be  selected  and  used.  In  general, 
fattening  rations  for  poultry  should  have  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  from  1  to  4  or  more.  In  all  cases  the  parts  in 
the  table  are  calculated  by  measurement  and  not  by 
weight. 

FATTENING  RATIONS 


Food           (a) 

Parts 

F.ood       (6) 

Parts 

1 

Ground  oats 

4 

Ground  barley  
Ground  corn   

1 
2 

Ground,  peas 
Ground  corn  .... 

!.'     i 

4 

(0 

(4) 

2 

Ground  corn 

2 

2 

Ground    bucl 

Clover   meal    

1 

2 

Blood  meal   

1 

1 

4 

Ground    oats 

5 

Ground  barley  
Ground    buckwheat. 

1 

1 

Ground    barley    . 
1    oz.    of   tallow 

1 
to 

each  4  fowls 

FEEDING  OF  TURKEYS 

Poults  should  have  nourishing  food  in  small  particles 
so  that  they  will  be  able  to  digest  it  properly.  No 
sour  or  fermented  food,  chopped  green  bone,  raw  meat, 
or  large  quantities  of  millet  seed,  cottage  cheese,  or 
wet  or  sloppy  foods  should  ever  be  fed  to  poults. 
Poults  require  plenty  of  grit  and  fresh  water. 

A  ration  of  stale  bread  crumbs  and  a  ration  made  up 
of  equal  parts  of  stale  bread  crumbs,  finely  chopped 
hard-boiled  eggs,  and  dandelion  leaves,  fed  alternately, 
is  a  good  method  of  feeding  poults. 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  77 

Turkeys  on  a  range  plentifully  supplied  with  natural 
foods  that  they  like  will  need  much  less  feeding 
than  turkeys  that  are  compelled  to  live  on  a  range 
where  the  natural  food  supply  is  scanty.  Turkeys 
should  have  plenty  of  corn,  wheat,  and  some  oats,  the 
quantities  and  proportions  varying  with  the  character 
of  the  food  on  their  range. 


FEEDING  OF  GUINEA  FOWLS 

Like  poults,  young  guinea  fowls  should  be  fed  on 
finely  divided  foods,  and  water  should  be  given  to  them 
in  very  shallow  vessels  to  prevent  the  young  birds 
from  drowning  in  them.  Grit  and  plenty  of  fresh 
water  should  be  supplied. 

A  ration  suitable  for  young  guinea  fowls  is  composed, 
by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Very  fine  oatmeal  2 

Finely  cracked  wheat  2 

Rape  seed   1 

Canary  seed   1 

Ant's  eggs,  or  very  small  particles  of  cooked 

meat,  or  finely  chopped  hard-boiled  eggs 1 

Guinea  fowls  for  market  can  be  fattened  on  milk 
curds,  steamed  hulled  oats,  and  warm  mash.  If  these 
feeds  are  not  available,  guinea  fowls  can  be  satisfac- 
torily fattened  on  a  ration  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
ground  oats,  barley  meal,  and  table  scraps. 


FEEDING   OF  PHEASANTS 

The    first    food    of    young    pheasants    should    be  com- 
posed, by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Very   small   bread   crumbs 1 

Canary    seed    1 

Fine  grit   , 1 

Very  fine  corn  grits 1 


78  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

If  the  pheasants  are  2  da.  old,  about  10%  of  cooked 
lean  meat  may  be  added.  Stale  bread  softened  in 
sweet  milk  and  a  custard  of  eggs  and  milk  put  to- 
gether with  enough  stale  bread  crumbs  to  soak  up  the 
greater  part  of  the  moisture,  are  good  foods  for  young 
pheasants.  A  certain  quantity  of  meal  worms  may  be 
fed  to  mature  pheasants,  although  a  ration  composed, 
by  measure,  as  follows,  is  preferable: 

Food  Parts 

Finely  chopped  hard-boiled  eggs 1 

Crushed  hemp  seed  1 

Stale   bread   crumbs 1 

Oatmeal    1 

Finely  chopped  cooked  lean  meat J4 

Finely  chopped  green  food  should  also  be  fed. 


FEEDING  OF  DUCKS 

During  the  fall,  in  addition  to  green  food,  ducks 
should  have  twice  a  day  as  much  as  they  will  eat  of 
a  mash  consisting,  by  measure,  of  the  following: 

Food  Parts 

Corn   meal    4 

Wheat   bran    12 

Low-grade   wheat   flour 1 

Fine    grit    l/4 

A  small  quantity  of  meat  scrap  may  be  added  to 
this  ration  if  desired. 

During  the  winter,  ducks  should  have  a  liberal  supply 
of  chopped  green  feed.  Twice  a  day  they  should  have 
all  they  will  eat  of  a  mash  feed  composed,  by  measure, 
as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat   bran    5 

Corn   meal    6 

Low-grade   wheat   flour 1 

A  small  quantity  of  meat  scrap  may  be  added  to  this 
ration  if  desired. 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  79 

A  suitable  feed  for  laying  ducks,  when  they  have 
an  ample  supply  of  green  food,  is  a  mash  food  composed, 
by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat  bran   3 

Ground   oats 3 

Corn   meal    3 

Low-grade  wheat  flour 1 

Meat  scrap   1 

Many  rations  are  used  for  fattening  broiler  ducks 
for  market.  A  good  one  to  use  for  the  10  da.  or  2 
wk.  previous  to  killing  is  composed,  by  measure,  as 
follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn   meal    10 

Wheat  bran   4 

Wheat    middlings    4 

Meat    scrap    3 

Low-grade  wheat  flour 1 

Green    feed    2 

Coarse  sand  1 

Ducklings  intended  for  breeders  are  fed  on  a  ration 
composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Wheat    bran    10 

Wheat  middlings  ' 6 

Corn    meal    3 

Low-grade  wheat  flour 1 

Meat   scrap   1 

Sand     1 

This  is  mixed  into  a  crumbly  state  by  the  addition 
of  milk  or  water  and  fed  three  times  daily.  In  some 
cases,  instead  of  wheat  bran  6  parts  of  bran  and  4 
parts  of  ground  oats  are  substituted 

Another  ration  for  ducklings  intended  for  breeders  is 
composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 


80  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

Food  Parts 

Corn    meal    6 

Wheat    bran    6 

Wheat  middlings   6 

Meat    scrap    1 

During  the  layi-ig  season  ducks  will  eat  about  1  pt. 
of  food  each  per  day.  Their  food  should  always  con- 
sist of  at  least  2  or  3%  of  grit,  ground  oyster  shells,  or 
some  similar  material. 


FEEDING  OF  GEESE 

A  simple  ration  for  goslings  is  composed,  by  measure, 
of  the  following: 

Food  Parts 

Corn  meal  1 

Wheat  bran  1 

Ground  oats  . .' 1 

Table  scraps   1 

Geese  are  by  nature  grazing  birds,  and  the  greater 
part  of  their  living  consists  of  green  food.  Because 
of  their  lack  of  a  crop,  geese  should  be  fed  on  ground 
corn  in  the  form  of  a  slightly  warmed  mash.  During 
the  winter,  in  addition  to  green  food,  the  matured 
geese  should  have  once  a  day  all  they  will  eat  of  a 
ration  composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn  meal  3 

Wheat  bran   3 

Ground   oats    3 

During  the  winter  this  same  ration  with  4  parts  of 
steamed  clover  added  is  suitable. 

The  following  rations  are  suitable  for  fattening  geese 
for  market. 

They  should  be  fed  liberally  three  times  a  day.  The 
morning  and  noon  feeds  should  consist,  by  measure, 
of  the  following: 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  SI 

Food  Parts 

Corn    meal    6 

Ground  oats  6 

Meat  scrap  1 

This  mixture  should  be  slightly  moistened  and  mixed 
until  it  assumes  a  crumbly  state.  During  the  last  10 
da.  of  feeding  the"  quantity  of  meat  in  the  ration  should 
be  doubled. 

In  the  evening  the  geese  should  be  fed  all  they  will 
eat  of  a  ration  composed,  by  measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Cracked  corn  boiled  until  soft 1 

Corn  meal  1 

Wheat  middlings   1 


FEEDING  OF  WILD  WATER  FOWLS 

Where  wild  water  fowls  have  the  freedom  of  a  large 
enough  pasture,  they  will  graze  the  greater  part  of 
their  living,  but  it  is  always  advisable  to  keep  near  at 
hand  covered  hoppers  where  the  fowls  may  help  them- 
selves at  will.  For  mature  ducks  and  geese,  the  hopper 
should  be  kept  filled  with  a  dry  mixture  composed,  by 
measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Ground  oats  1 

Cracked   corn    1 

Wheat  bran  , 1 


FEEDING   OF   PIGEONS 

The  grains  most  suitable  for  feeding  to  pigeons  are 
wheat,  corn,  buckwheat,  barley,  peas,  vetch  seed,  hulled 
oats,  millet,  rice,  hemp  seed,  and  canary  seed.  No  large 
quantity  of  buckwheat,  barley,  hulled  oats,  or  Kafir 
corn,  should  be  fed  to  pigeons,  because  these  grains 
contain  a  large  percentage  of  crude  fiber. 


82  FEEDING  OF  FOWLS 

Pigeons  that  are  not  feeding  their  young  may  con- 
sume as  little  as  2  oz.  of  grain  each,  per  day,  but 
those  feeding  their  young  will  require  perhaps  as  much 
as  4  oz.  per  day. 

A  suitable  ration  for  pigeons  is  composed,  by  measure, 
as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn    2 

Wheat    1 

Peas    1 

During  the  fall  and  when  the  pigeons  are  molting, 
a  good  ration  for  them  is  composed,  by  measure,  as 
follows: 

Food  Parts 

Corn   4 

Wheat    4 

Peas    4 

Millet    2 

Vetch  seed  1 

Flaxseed    1 

Hemp  seed *A 

A  ration  for  the  hand  feeding  of  pigeons,  that  is, 
for  scattering  on  the  floor  of  the  house,  is  composed,  by 
measure,  as  follows: 

Food  Parts 

Canada  peas   3 

Cracked  corn   1 

Wheat   1 

Kafir  corn  1 


INCUBATION  83 

INCUBATION 


NATURAL  INCUBATION 

In  poultry,  the  reproductive  process  is  accomplished 
in  two  stages.  The  egg  is  first  produced,  developed, 
fertilized  within  the  body  of  the  hen,  and  laid.  Then 
the  egg  is  subjected  to  a  certain  temperature  (100°  F. 
or  a  little  higher)  for  about  21  da.,  during  which  time  the 
embryo  develops  and  hatches  out  of  the  shell  as  a 
chick.  The  process  of  developing  the  embryo  within 
the  egg  by  means  of  heat  is  called  incubation.  When 
this  is  carried  on  by  a  hen,  it  is  known  as  natural 
incubation;  when  incubation  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  machine,  oven,  or  other  device,  it  is  known  as 
artificial  incubation.  Man  has  little  control  over  the 
reproductive  process  in  its  first  stage  except  insofar 
as  the  selection  of  the  breeders  is  concerned;  in  the 
second  stage,  however,  if  artificial  incubation  is  prac- 
ticed, he  can,  by  his  methods  of  conducting  the  process, 
greatly  influence  the  development  and  future  well-being 
of  the  chick. 

Fertilization  of  the  Egg.— In  order  that  eggs  shall 
hatch,  the  hen  that  lays  them  must  have  been  mated 
with  the  male.  The  actual  fertilization  of  the  egg 
probably  takes  place  as  the  yolk  enters  the  oviduct. 
In  the  process  of  fertilization  the  germ  from  the  male 
comes  in  contact  with  the  germ  cell,  or  blastoderm,  and 
causes  it  to  develop,  provided  that  it  is  exposed  to 
the  right  temperature.  Hatchable  eggs  are  those  that 
are  fertilized  and  have  vitality  enough  to  insure  the 
production  of  a  living  chick. 

Eggs  are  usually  fertile  up  to  and  including  those 
laid  the  ninth  day  after  the  hens  are  separated  from 
the  males,  and  fertilization  is  impossible  after  the 
sexes  have  been  separated  for  12  da.  or  more.  Eggs 
may  safely  be  counted  as  fertile  after  the  ma.les  have 
been  with  the  hens  for  9  da.  or  more. 


84  INCUBATION 

The  eggs  of  all  kinds  of  fowls  are  more  apt  to  be 
fertile  during  the  spring  and  early  summer  than  at  any 
other  time.  Fertility  begins  to  decline  with  the  com- 
mencement of  molting,  and  during  the  fall  and  winter 
the  production  of  fertile  eggs  is  at  the  minimum.  The 
average  production  occurs  in  Jan.  or  soon  after. 

Period  of  Vitality  in  Eggs.— Fresh  laid  eggs  hatch  in 
fewer  hours  than  eggs  that  are  kept  2  wk.  or  longer 
before  the  process  of  incubation  begins.  After  eggs 
are  4  wk.  old  it  is  not  safe  to  rely  on  their  vitality 
being  sufficient  to  produce  chicks  that  will  grow  to 
maturity,  although  in  some  cases  eggs  3  mo.  old  have 
produced  chicks  that  grew  to  maturity.  Fresh-laid  eggs 
from  fowls  of  all  kinds  hatch  in  fewer  hours  than 
eggs  that  are  kept  for  any  length  of  time. 

Eggs  for  hatching  that  are  moved  or  turned  about  each 
day  can  be  safely  kept  for  14  da. 

Average  Period  of  Incubation  of  Eggs.— The  average 
period  of  incubation  of  eggs  is  as  follows: 

Days  . 

Fowls,  medium  and  large-sized  breeds 21 

Bantams    and   other   small    breeds 19  to  20 

Ducks    28 

Muscovy  duck   35 

Muscovy    duck    crossed    with    Pekin    or 

other  drake    32 

Geese 28 

Turkeys    27  to  29 

Guinea   fowls 28  to  30 

Pheasants    24  to  25 

Peafowls    27  to  29 

Pigeons     17 

Swans    35  to  40 

Ostriches     40  to  42 

Selection  of  the  Sitting  Hen.— Cochin,  Orpington,  Ply- 
mouth Rock,  Rhode  Island  Red,  and  Wyandotte  hens 
are  the  best  for  hatching  purposes.  The  quiet  hen . 
that  will  sit  contented  en  the  nest  until  her  work 


INCUBATION  85 

is  finished  and  will  then  go  forth  and  care  for  her  brood 
is  the  kind  to  be  depended  on  both  for  raising  utility 
fowls  and  fowls  for  exhibition. 

The  most  unsatisfactory  hen  for  hatching  is  the 
nervous  hen  that  fusses  and  fights  all  who  move  about 
her;  that  will  spring  quickly  from  the  nest  when  any 
one  approaches  hef,  thus  breaking  her  eggs  and  dis- 
turbing those  left  in  the  nest.  A  good  motherly  hen 
that  will  rear  two  broods  in  one  season  is  the  kind  to 
be  depended  on. 

Nests  for  Sitting  Hens.— Nests  for  sitting  hens  must 
be  large  enough  to  prevent  the  eggs  from  being  crowded 
or  piled  on  one  another.  Nests  carelessly  made  assure 
bad  results;  the  eggs  roll  out  and  are  broken  or  chilled. 
The  depth  of  a  poorly  made  nest  is  not  sufficient  to 
protect  the  eggs  from  below  nor  will  it  aid  the  hen 
by  holding  the  warmth  about  the  eggs.  A  comfortable 
nest  can  be  made  in  a  box  laid  on  its  side  and  filled 
with  fine  hay  or  soft  straw.  A  nest  of  this  kind  will  do 
when  the  hen  is  by  herself  and  is  safely  shielded 
from  other  hens  that  might  disturb  her  while  sitting. 
Nests  in  which  hens  are  sitting  must  be  protected 
against  intrusion  from  other  hens,  for  the  sitting  hens 
must  have  quiet  and  must  be  undisturbed  while  on  the 
eggs.  If  the  hens  are  disturbed  they  become  nervous, 
move  about,  and  break  the  eggs. 

Number  and  Arrangement  of  Eggs.— A  setting  of  eggs 
should  consist  of  an  odd  number,  because  an  odd  number 
fits  better  in  the  nest  than  does  an  even  number. 
Thirteen  eggs  are  generally  considered  as  a  setting. 
The  eggs  should  be  uniform  in  size,  for  if  some  are  small 
and  others  large  the  body  of  the  hen  will  not  come 
close  to  the  smaller  ones  and  the  temperature  of  the 
eggs  will  not  be  uniform.  Eggs  of  irregular  size  are 
unfit  for  incubation.  Eggs  of  this  kind  seldom,  if  ever, 
produce  perfect  chicks.  Eggs  set  under  hens  gain 
a  smooth  gloss  from  contact  with  the  body  of  the  hen. 
By  this  means,  as  the  process  of  incubation  advances, 
the  pores  of  the  eggshell  are  closed. 


86 


INCUBATION 


ARTIFICIAL   INCUBATION 

During  recent  years  there  has  been  a  large  increase 
of  market  poultry,  resulting  from  the  practice  of  arti- 
ficial incubation.  The  incubator  operator  can  control 
production  by  artificial  means,  but  with  hens  a  desire 
to  hatch  cannot  be  hastened.  The  artificial  methods 
of  hatching  and  rearing  chicks  bring  alike  to  the  farmer 
and  to  the  small  grower  the  choice  of  the  day  of 
production  and  of  the  number  of  chicks  produced. 

The  results  obtained  from  artificial  incubation  depend 
primarily  on  the  vitality  of  the  eggs;  but  the  handling 
of  the  incubator,  surrounding  influences,  and  the  gen- 
eral efficiency  of  the  incubator  itself  are  other  condi- 
tions of  fundamental  inportance.  The  vitality  of  eggs 
depends  on  the  constitutional 
vigor  of  the  fowls  that  pro- 
duce them;  superior  vigor 
must  come  through  several 
generations  of  strong  and 
healthy  fowls.  It  follows 
therefore  that,  in  order  to 
have  embyro  chicks  of 
marked  vitality,  eggs  must  be 
used  that  come  from  strong, 
vigorous,  well-bred  fowls. 

The  per  cent,  fertility  is 
an  expression  that  is  fre- 
quently misleading.  More 
than  90%  of  the  eggs 
may  be  fertile  and  yet  no 
living  chicks  may  come  from 
them,  because  the  germ  is 
so  lacking  in  vitality  that 
it  dies  before  incubation  is  completed.  The  per  cent, 
fertility  is  increased  by  proper  feeding  and  the  vigor 
of  both  male  and  female  is  also  increased,  but  there  is 
a  pronounced  difference  between  fertility  and  vitality. 
The  former  may  exist  to  a  marked  degree  even  though 


WHITE    PLYMOUTH    ROCK 
MALE 


INCUBATION 


87 


the  vitality  of  the  germs  or  the  egg  be  lacking,  but  the 
latter  obviously  cannot  be  present  without  the  former. 
Chicks  that  are  not  strong  and  of  abundant  vitality 
when  hatched  should  never  be  raised  for  breeders, 
but  such  fowls  may  be  used  for  market  poultry. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  production 
of  fowls  for  exhibition  or  for  beauty  and  the  production 
of  those  fitted  for  egg  yielding  and  for  table  meat. 
Where  exhibition  fowls  are  desired,  the  producing  stock 
must  be  yarded  to  avoid  the  mixing  of  breeds  or 
varieties.  This  is  necessary  only  during  the  breeding 
season.  At  other  times  the  old  and  young  stock  may 
have  free  range.  Where  egg  producers  and  market 
poultry  are  desired,  it  is  best  to  give  the  breeding 
stock  all  possible  liberty.  It  is  best  to  keep  only  one 
variety,  and  the  flock  should  have  free  range  if 
possible. 

Relative  Efficiency  of  Incubators  and  Hens.— The 
efficiency  of  hens  and  incubators  has  been  compared  in 
many  localities.  These  comparisons  show  the  results 
gained  from  hens  set  in  many  kinds  of  nests  under 
average  conditions  on  the  farm,  on  the  town  lot, 
and  with  the  fancier  who  keeps  a  few  hens.  The 
average  per  cent,  of  chicks  obtained  from  both  hens 
and  incubators  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 

COMPARATIVE    EFFICIENCY    OF    INCUBATORS 
AND  HENS 


Number  of  Eggs 
Set 

^0 

<u  to 
G£ 

1 

Per  Cent,  of  Chicks 
Dead  in  Shell 

Per  Cent.  Hatched 
of  Total  Eggs  Set 

Per  Cent,  of  Chicks 
Dead  at 
4  Wk.  of  Age 

Live  Chicks  at 
4  Wk.  in  Per  Cent, 
of  the  Eggs  Set 

Number  of  Hatches 

Hens  

809 

12.9 

5.3 

77.3 

17.1 

49.3 

71 

Incubators  .  .  . 

5,978 

19.2 

15.0 

45.2 

24.1 

37.7 

68 

88  INCUBATION 

The  records  of  artificial  incubation  are  derived  from 
experiments  with  different  makes  of  incubators. 

The  hatch  from  hens  ranged  as  high  as  83.3%  and  as 
low  as  50%,  and  that  of  the  incubator  from  77.1%  to 
32.5%. 

Selection  of  Eggs  for  Incubation.— Eggs  for  hatching 
in  an  incubator  should  all  be  of  one  kind,  size,  and 
color;  for  only  when  eggs  of  such  character  are  incu- 
bated  together  can  uniform  hatching  be  secured. 

Eggs  from  Leghorns  and  Brahmas  do  not  hatch  well 
if  both  are  together  in  the  same  incubator,  for  the 
eggs  of  the  Leghorns  usually  hatch  during  the  twentieth 
day,  and  the  hatching  of  the  Brahma  eggs  may  be 
delayed  to  the  end  of  the  twenty-first  day.  If  eggs 
from  Leghorns,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and 
Brahmas  are  all  together  in  the  one  incubator  the  hatch 
is  irregular.  Eggs  but  1  da.  old  hatch  a  day  sooner 
than  eggs  that  are  2  wk.  old.  Leghorn  eggs  placed  in 
an  incubator  on  the  day  they  are  laid  may  hatch  in 
480  hr. ;  eggs  of  Asiatic  fowls  placed  in  the  same 
incubator  when  2  wk.  old  may  not  hatch  for  516  hr.,  a 
difference  in  time  that  makes  poor  results  inevitable 
if  the  eggs  of  both  breeds  are  incubated  together. 
The  eggs  of  ducks  and  of  chickens  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully hatched  together  in  the  same  incubator,  nor 
do  the  eggs  of  any  two  or  more  kinds  of  fowls  hatch 
well  if  placed  together  in  the  same  incubator  or  under 
the  same  hen. 

If  the  eggs  are  of  uniform  size,  the  temperatures  of 
all  are  equal  or  nearly  so;  if  large  and  small  eggs 
are  in  the  same  machine  the  temperature  may  not  be 
the  same  in  all. 

Eggs  with  white  shells  hatch  in  fewer  hours  than  do 
the  dark-shelled  eggs,  for  white  shells  are  thinner  and 
transmit  heat  more  freely  to  the  germ  within.  Under 
the  same  conditions,  eggs  with  white  shells  will  have 
larger  air  cells  than  those  with  heavier  shells. 

Only  smooth  and  well-formed  eggs  should  be  used; 
eggs  with  uneven  surface,  bad  form,  rough  shells,  or 


INCUBA  TION  89 

mixed  colors  should  be  discarded,  as  well  as  eggs 
that  are  abnormally  large  or  small. 

Care  of  Eggs  for  Hatching.— The  best  hatch  is  ob- 
tained from  eggs  placed  in  the  incubator  the  same  day 
on  which  they  are  laid.  Eggs  keep  in  prime  condition 
for  hatching  up  to  the  tenth  day;  if  2  wk.  old  they  are 
safe  for  incubation;  but  if  older  than  this  they  seldom 
hatch  well,  although  some  eggs  that  have  been  kept  a 
month  will  hatch.  Eggs  keep  best  in  a  uniform  tem- 
perature of  about  55°  F.  in  an  atmosphere  free  from  oil 
and  other  bad  odors.  The  vitality  of  eggs  that  are 
exposed  for  any  length  of  time  to  a  temperature  below 
40°  F.  is  impaired. 

Eggs  for  hatching  are  shifted  at  least  every  other 
day  so  that  the  yolks  will  not  settle  to  one  side,  stick 
to  the  shell,  and  thus  destroy  the  germ.  Preferably,  the 
eggs  should  be  stored  small  end  down,  either  in  a 
regular  packing  crate  or  any  suitable  receptacle. 

Eggs  for  hatching  are  injured  if  they  are  washed; 
washing  removes  the  natural  glaze  from  the  shell,  and 
such  eggs  do  not  hatch  well.  Though  not  advisable  to 
hatch  dirty  eggs,  such  eggs  hatch  better  in  soiled  con- 
dition than  they  would  if  washed. 

INCUBATORS 

An  incubator  is  an  apparatus  by  means  of  which  eggs 
may  be  artifically  kept  at  the  proper  temperature  for 
hatching.  Many  different  styles  and  sizes  of  incu- 
bators are  now  in  use,  some  of  them  being  adapted  for 
all  sizes  of  eggs  from  those  of  the  bantam  to  those 
of  an  ostrich.  Incubators  range  in  size  from  those 
the  capacity  of  which  is  limited  to  a  few  dozen  eggs  to 
those  that  are  capable  of  incubating  many  thousand 
eggs.  The  machines  most  commonly  used  have  capaci- 
ties that  range  from  5  to  30  doz.  hen's  eggs  or  a  smaller 
number  of  any  eggs  that  are  larger  than  hen's  eggs. 

Though  many  different  types  of  incubators  are  made, 
with  but  few  exceptions  in  outward  appearance  they 
resemble  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  1. 


90 


INCUBATION 


The  essential  parts  of  an  incubator  consist  of  a 
heating  apparatus  that  is  controlled  by  a  regulator, 
and  an  egg  chamber  that  can  be  held  at  the  required 
temperature.  Incubators  are  also  supplied  with  ther- 
mometers and  means  of  ventilation. 

In  the  various  incubators  heat  is  brought  into  contact 

with .  the    eggs    either    by    diffusion    or    radiation.      In 

-  diffusion  incubators,  hot  air  is  evenly  distributed  through- 


FIG.  1 


out  the  egg  chamber.  In  radiation  incubators,  the  heat  is 
radiated  from  pipes  or  radiators  that  are  heated  either 
by  hot  air  or  by  hot  water.  A  large  part  of  the  incubators 
in  use  are  of  the  diffusion  type,  in  which  the  air  is 
heated  by  an  oil  lamp.  In  these  machines  the  heated 
air  passes  directly  into  the  egg  chamber  and  throughout 
the  interior  of  the  machine.  The  eggs  in  the  tray 
are  thus  surrounded  with  air  at  the  required  tempera- 
ture. Incubators  in  which  the  heat  is  both  radiated  and 
diffused  are  also  used.  The  more  evenly  the  egg 


INCUBATION  91 

chamber  is  warmed  the  greater  will  be  the  success  in 
hatching. 

The  most  satisfactory  source  of  heat  for  incubators  of 
all  kinds  is  that  obtained  from  oil  lamps.  Some  in- 
cubators are  heated  by  circulating  hot  water.  Such 
incubators  require  particular  care  and  attention,  and 
their  efficiency  depends  on  the  proper  circulation  of  the 
water,  the  distribution  of  the  pipes,  and  the  lasting 
qualities  of  the  entire  heating  system.  Illuminating  gas, 
electricity,  and  alcohol  lamps  are  also  used  to  some 
extent  as  sources  of  heat  for  incubators. 

Incubator  manufacturers  prefer  thermometers  specially 
made  to  suit  each  kind  of  machine.  There  is  usually 
a  reason  for  such  preference,  and  the  thermometer 
recommended  by  the  manufacturers  should  be  favored. 
If  this  instrument  cannot  be  obtained,  the  best  that  is 
made  must  be  selected.  Incubator  thermometers  are 
scaled  from  90°  F.  to  110°  F.,  and  are  marked  low  at 
100°  F.  and  high  at  105°  F.,  and  the  scale  is  crossed  at 
103°  F.  by  an  arrow  or  a  heavy  line.  It  is  thus  easy  to 
make  an  accurate  reading  between  the  low  and  the  high 
marks,  provided  the  thermometer  is  correctly  graduated. 

Before  being  used,  incubator  thermometers  are  tested 
in  the  following  manner:  An  instrument  known  to 
be  correct  is  stirred  about  in  warm  water  until  the 
degree  of  heat  is  105°  F.  or  a  little  higher.  Other 
thermometers  are  then  held  in  the  same  hand  with 
the  one  known  to  be  correct  and  all  are  stirred  about 
in  the  water  so  that  the  reading  of  all  may  be  taken 
under  like  conditions.  Any  instruments  that  fail  to 
mark  the  temperature  correctly  are  rejected.  It  is  best 
to  test  all  thermometers  in  use  at  least  once  a  season. 

The  printed  directions  that  come  with  each  incubator, 
giving  instructions  for  its  operation,  also  tell  where 
the  thermometer  is  to  be  placed  in  the  machine,  and  to 
secure  the  best  results  such  directions  should  be 
followed  to  the  letter.  The  thermometer  is  usually 
placed  in  or  near  the  center  of  the  egg  tray. 


92  INCUBATION 

MANAGEMENT   OF   INCUBATORS 

Incubators  are  managed  so  as  to  duplicate  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  conditions  existing  under  the  hen  in 
natural  incubation.  Heat,  moisture,  and  ventilation  are 
the  main  factors  to  watch. 

Temperatures  Necessary  for  Incubation.— When  fertile 
eggs  are  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  100°  F.,  or  a 
little  higher,  the  germ  cell  begins  to  grow;  if  this 
degree  of  heat  is  long  continued  the  formation  of  a 
definite  embryo  follows,  from  which,  in  the  case  of  hen's 
eggs  kept  constantly  in  a  uniform  temperature  of  103°  F. 
for  21  da.,  living  chicks  result.  The  temperature  under 
sitting  hens  varies  from  95°  F.  to  105°  F.  The  most 
satisfactory  results  are  obtained  from  a  temperature 
ranging  from  102°  F.  to  103°  F.  The  average  tempera- 
ture at  the  lower  side  where  the  egg  rests  in  the  nest 
is  about  98°  F.;  at  the  center  of  the  egg  it  is  about 
101°  F.,  although  at  the  surface  or  top  of  the  egg  the 
temperature  registers  about  103°  F.  Eggs  hatch  best  in 
an  incubator  at  a  temperature  of  103°  F.,  but  they  hatch 
fairly  well  in  a  temperature  that  varies  from  101°  F. 
to  103l/2°  F. ;  and  they  may  hatch  if  the  temperature 
goes  as  low  as  99°  F.  and  as  high  as  106°  F.  Under  the 
influence  of  low  or  irregular  temperature,  the  hatch 
is  delayed  and  the  number  of  chicks  obtained  is  a 
matter  of  uncertainty. 

The  heat  under  sitting  hens  varies  fully  as  much  as 
is  permissible  .with  incubators.  A  regular  temperature 
that  does  not  go  below  102°  F.,  nor  above  103°  F.,  is 
normal  for  the  incubation  period,  except  at  the  time  of 
turning  or  cooling  of  the  eggs.  If  the  heat  goes  below 
normal,  the  hatch  is  delayed;  if  it  goes  above  normal, 
the  hatch  is  hastened;  as  a  consequence  of  either  of 
these  conditions  the  eggs  may  be  destroyed. 

A  regulator,  or  thermostat,  is  used  to  control  the 
temperature  in  the  egg  chamber  of  an  incubator.  This 
is  properly  adjusted  before  eggs  are  placed  in  the 
machine. 


INCUBATION 


93 


Moisture  in  Incubators.—  During  incubation  a  part 
of  the  water  in  an  egg  is  evaporated,  and  as  the  moisture 
content  of  the  eggs  grows  less,  the  air  cell  becomes 
larger.  This  is  indicated  by  the  size  of  the  air  cell. 
The  air  cells  differ  under  hens  and  in  incubators  in 
the  same  room;  they  are  not  alike  under  different 
hens,  and  they  differ  under  the  same  hens  and  in  the 
same  machines.  The  greater  part  of  the  moisture  in 
an  egg  disappears  as  the  hatching  period  approaches, 
and  consequently  the  air  cell  becomes  larger  in  size  and 
acts  as  a  cushion,  or  filler,  that  prevents  the  embryo 
from  flattening  out  inside  of  the  egg.  The  normal  size 
of  air  cell  at  different  stages  of  incubation  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  in  which  the  numbered  lines 
refer  to  the  size  of  the  cell  as  seen 
on  the  fifth,  tenth,  fifteenth,  and  nine- 
teenth days.  An  egg  loses  about  / 
8  gr.  of  weight  per  day  during  the  I 
first  18  da.  of  incubation,  the  loss  \ 
being  due  mainly  to  evaporation.  As 
this  loss  occurs,  the  shell  linings,  or 
the  inner  and  outer  membranes,  sepa- 
rate. This  separation  usually  occurs 
at  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  where  the 
air  cell  is  located. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  air  cell  is  normally 
located  at  the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  other  air  cells 
may  form  on  the  side  of  eggs  that  are  not  turned  for 
several  days  prior  to  incubation  or  during  the  incu- 
bation period. 

The  normal  mean  relative  humidity  of  the  air  under 
the  hen  on  the  nest  is  about  60.  More  moisture  than 
this  is  not  needed,  and  good  hatches  may  be  had  with 
less.  Hot  air  evaporates  moisture  and  enlarges  the  air 
cells  of  the  eggs.  When  the  air  cells  are  smaller  than 
normal,  they  may  be  enlarged  by  more  ventilation  and 
less  moisture.  If  moisture  is  lacking  inside  the  egg 
chamber,  it  must  be  supplied  in  some  way  or  the  success 
of  the  hatch  may  be  impaired. 


FIG.  2 


94  INCUBATION 

Ventilation  in  Incubators.— Proper  ventilation  is  of 
vital  importance,  because  the  moisture  content  of  the 
eggs  is  largely  controlled  by  ventilation,  and  it  must 
be  rigidly  maintained.  Moisture  and  ventilation  are  not 
controlled  in  the  same  way  in  all  incubators.  The 
directions  for  operating  each  kind  of  incubator  are 
explicit  with  reference  to  these  two  matters,  and  it  is 
usually  a  safe,  correct  practice  to  follow  these  directions 
closely. 

Faults  in  Operation  of  Incubators.— Bad  odors  and 
smoking  lamps  are  often  due  to  poor  oil;  unless  this 
fault  is  remedied  the  hatch  will  be  spoiled.  Imperfect 
lamps,  short  wicks,  or  wicks  that  are  filled  up  in  the 
web  are  also  serious  obstacles  to  success  in  artificial 
incubation.  The  best  obtainable  lamps  and  wicks  are 
often  faulty.  If  they  are  defective  in  any  respect 
they  render  the  keeping  of  an  even  temperature  dif- 
ficult or  impossible.  An  even  heat  current  cannot  be 
maintained  unless  the  incubator  is  absolutely  level 
on  top.  Flues  that  are  clogged  with  soot  fail  in  heating; 
oil-covered  lamps  soil  the  hands  and  when  they  become 
heated  pass  the  odor  of  oil  through  the  heater  into  the 
egg  chamber. 

The  handling  or  turning  of  eggs  with  hands  that 
are  soiled  with  oil  destroys  the  embryo  in  the  shell. 
Too  much  haste  in  warming  overheats  the  eggs  and 
kills  the  germs;  a  sudden  jar  of  the  incubator  separates 
the  yolk  in  the  egg  and  the  chick  promptly  dies. 
If  the  eggs  are  left  out  to  cool  until  they  are  chilled, 
they  will  not  hatch.  Lamps  irregularly  filled,  carelessly 
trimmed,  and  allowed  to  burn  too  high  or  too  low 
assure  failure,  as  will  also  neglect  in  turning  and 
airing  the  eggs.  If  the  operator  neglects  the  eggs 
in  the  incubator,  failure  is  as  certain  as  it  is  when 
the  hen  neglects  her  nest. 

Not  all  incubators  are  constructed  alike,  and  the 
best  results  are  secured  by  following  the  special  direc- 
tions for  operation  that  are  usually  furnished  with  the 
machine. 


INCUBATION  95 

FACTORS  THAT  INFLUENCE  SUCCESS  IN 
INCUBATION 

The  factor  of  prime  importance  in  incubation  is  the 
vitality  of  the  eggs,  and  this  depends  on  the  vitality 
of  the  fowls  that  produce  them. 

Eggs  for  hatching  should  all  be  of  one  kind,  size,  and 
color. 

Only  smooth  and  well-formed  eggs  should  be  used 
for  hatching.  Eggs  of  bad  form  or  with  rough  shells 
should  be  discarded. 

The  best  eggs  for  hatching  are  those  that  are  placed 
in  an  incubator  on  the  day  they  are  laid;  eggs  are  in 
good  condition  for  hatching  up  to  10  da.  after  they  are 
laid;  after  they  are  2  wk.  old  they  are  unreliable. 

Clean  eggs  are  the  best,  but  eggs  should  not  be  washed. 
Washed  eggs  do  not  hatch  well. 

The  incubator  must  be  set  up  perfectly  level  and 
kept  so  for  best  results. 

The  directions  given  by  the  manufacturers  for  the 
operations  of  their  machines  must  be  closely  followed. 

The  thermometers  recommended  by  the  manufacturers 
of  the  incubators  should  be  used,  and  they  should  be 
placed  in  the  machine  exactly  where  directed. 

Incubator  eggs  should  not  be  handled  with  hands 
soiled  by  dirt  or  oil.  Oil  will  kill  the  germ  within  the 
egg. 

Avoid  jars  to  the  incubator  while  hatching.  This 
ruptures  the  egg  and  destroys  the  embryo. 

The  incubator  room  should  be  kept  free  of  drafts  and 
bad  odors  of  all  kinds. 

Keep  the  flues  of  the  incubator  clean  and  free  from 
soot.  This  prevents  the  proper  amount  of  heat  from 
reaching  the  egg  chamber. 

Keep  the  lamps  clean  and  free  from  oil.  Oil  odors 
affect  the  eggs,  and  may  even  destroy  the  embryos. 

When  the  eggs  are  first  placed  in  the  incubator,  they 
should  be  warmed  gradually.  If  they  are  heated  too 
fast  the  germs  will  be  destroyed. 


96  INCUBATION 

Do  not  neglect  to  turn  and  air  the  eggs  in  an  in- 
cubator. 

When  the  eggs  are  taken  out  of  an  incubator  to  air, 
the  door  should  be  closed  so  that  the  egg  chamber  will 
not  cool  off.  The  eggs  should  not  be  kept  out  of  the 
chamber  until  they  become  chilled.  This  kills  the 
embryos. 

Be  sure  to  have  the  brooders  prepared  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  chicks  when  they  are  ready  to  be  taken 
from  the  incubator. 

When  the  incubator  is  not  in  use,  keep  it  in  a  place 
where  it  will  not  become  infested  with  vermin.  When  it 
is  again  put  in  use,  it  should  be  examined,  thoroughly 
cleaned,  and  run  for  several  days  before  the  eggs  are 
placed  in  it. 

TESTING  FERTILITY  OF  EGGS 

After  hen's  eggs  have  been  incubated  for  some  time, 
it  is  usually  desirable  that  they  be  examined  for 
fertility.  This  examination  should  be  made  during  the 

seventh  day  of  incuba- 
tion, and  while  the 
work  of  testing  the 
egg  can  be  done  in 
daylight,  it  is  usually 
well  to  do  the  work 
after  dark.  The  egg 
may  be  tested  without 
the  aid  of  any  appli- 
ance except  a  lamp. 
As  shown  in  Fig.  3, 
the  hand  of  the  tester 
shades  the  lamplight 
so  that  the  light  trans- 
mitted through  the  egg 
may  be  apparent  to 
the  tester,  or  the  light  may  be  shaded  by  means 
of  a  cardboard  in  which  an  egg-shaped  hole  has 
been  cut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  No  matter  what 


INCUBATION  97 


1 IV  ^  V  DM.  J.  1 1/iV  \Ji 

method  is  used,  the  eggs  that  are  infertile  and  in  which 
the  germs  are  dead  may  be  quickly  separated  from  the 
fertile    ones,    as    the    developing    embryo    appears    as    a 
\\    \ 


FIG.  4 

dark    spot    in    the    otherwise    clear    white    of    the    egg. 
The  clear  eggs  should  be  removed,  as  further  incubation 


FIG.  5 


of  them  is  useless.    It  is  generally  advisable  to  combine 
the    fertile    eggs    of    three    of    four   hens,    placing    them 


98 


INCUBATION 


under  two  hens  and  supplying  those  hens  from  which 
the  eggs  have  been  removed  with  other  eggs.  Vigorous 
hens  can  endure  the  strain  of  the  second  hatching. 

The  use  of  bull's-eye  lamps,  or  lanterns,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5  makes  the  work  more  efficient  by  magnifying 
the  germ,  thus  emphasizing  the  difference  between  the 
living  and  the  dead  germs.  When  the  egg  is  laid 
against  the  opening  with  the  large  end  up,  the  air 
cell  is  seen  at  the  top  and  the  fertility  or  non-fertility 
of  the  egg  is  readily  perceived.  The  egg  must  fit 
close  against  the  rubber  front  so  as  to  cut  off  the  side 
light. 


FIG.  6 


When  held  against  the  opening  through  which  the  light 
comes,  the  clear,  or  infertile,  egg  is  nearly  transparent, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6  (a).  If  fertile,  the  egg  is  opaque 
and  the  embryo  is  plainly  seen,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6  (&). 
Some  eggs  show  a  brown  shadow  over  the  side  as  if 
a  veil  were  interposed  between  the  shell  and  the 
germ.  The  size  of  this  apparent  veil  varies.  Eggs 
that  have  thick,  dark  shells  do  not  show  the  veil  so 
plainly  as  do  those  that  have  thin  or  white  shells. 


BROODING  99 

Dead  germs,  or  spoiled  eggs,  show  in  several  ways:  the 
inactive  or  dead  germ  and  the  separate  yolk  are  not 
clearly  denned;  the  blood  markings  do  not  have  venous 
outlines;  irregular  lines  without  connections  are  seen; 
and  the  entire  egg  structure  lacks  the  definiteness  of 
that  of  eggs  that  contain  living  embryos.  With  practice, 
the  merest  amaieur  becomes  familiar  with  these  dis- 
tinctive conditions  as  viewed  through  the  tester  in  a 
darkened  room. 


BROODING 


NATURAL   BROODING 

Brooding  is  the  process  of  warming  and  caring  for 
chicks  from  the  time  they  emerge  from  the  shell  until 
they  are  old  enough  to  withstand  ordinary  temperatures 
and  to  shift  for  themselves.  When  the  chicks  are  kept 
warm  and  are  cared  for  by  a  hen  the  process  is  called 
natural  brooding.  When  the  warmth  and  protection 
is  supplied  by  some  mechanical  device,  or  brooder,  and 
the  chicks  are  otherwise  cared  for  by  an  attendant, 
the  process  is  called  artificial  brooding. 

Brood  Coops.— In  natural  brooding  suitable  brood  coops 
are  essential;  such  coops  should  be  free  from  dampness, 
v/ell  ventilated,  comfortably  warm  but  not  too  hot, 
and  large  enough  that  the  chicks  will  not  be  cramped 
for  space.  Where  cats,  rats,  and  other  predatory 
animals  are  a  menace,  coops  with  covered  runways  are 
indispensable. 

A  large  brood  coop  that  will  house  three  or  four 
hens  and  their  broods  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  is  a 
strongly  built  coop  6  ft.  long,  3  ft.  deep,  and  3  ft. 
high  in  front.  The  upper  part  of  the  front  is  enclosed 
with  wire  netting,  the  lower  part  with  strips  of  wood. 
The  board  doors  close  over  the  slats,  which  may  be 
removed  when  the  chicks  are  large  enough  to  run 


100 


BROODING 


about  with  the  hen.  A  coop  of  this  size  will  accommo- 
date from  50  to  60  chicks;  six  of  these  coops  will 
accommodate  300  chicks  after  they  are  weaned.  The 
board  floors  are  covered  with  earth  or  sand,  which  may 
be  cleaned  away  quickly  when  necessary.  Such  coops 
are  warm  enough  for  cool  weather  and  may  be  opened 
for  ventilation  when  the  weather  is  warm;  if  roost 
poles  are  set  in  place,  the  chicks  can  continue  to  occupy 
the  coops  until  winter. 

During  the  summer  months,  coops  of  this  kind  partly 
hidden  by  bushes  and  weeds  serve  in  the  daytime  as  a 
place  in  which  the  hen  and  chicks  may  find  shelter 
from  the  heat  and  rain  and  protection  from  birds  of 
prey.  The  lower  doors  should  be  closed  at  night  to 
protect  the  inmates  from  nocturnal  prowlers. 


FIG.  1 

The  small  brood  coop  shown  in  Fig.  2  is  suitable  for 
one  hen  and  a  brood  of  chicks,  and  will  afford  good 
protection  from  all  small  animals  likely  to  prey  on 
chem.  These  coops  are  2  ft.  square  and  2  ft.  high  in 
front.  The  glass  window  in  the  lower  part  of  the  front 
is  made  to  slide  so  that  the  hen  and  chicks  may  be 
let  out  when  desired.  The  coop  is  ventilated  by 
means  of  the  netting  under  the  hood  that  shelters  the 
front  of  the  coop  from  sun  and  rain.  These  coops  have 
board  floors  and  shingle  roofs,  and  they  are  made  of 


BROODING 


101 


1-in.  lumber  dressed  on  both  sides.  Coops  of  this  kind 
may  be  located  in  lots  that  are  enclosed  with  wire 
fence. 

To  keep  them  sanitary  and  free  from  insect  vermin 
brood  coops  are  sprayed  inside  and  outside  with  crude 
petroleum  or  creosote  or  kerosene  or  some  other  liquid 
insecticide;  and  the  paint  should  be  applied  at  least 
a  week  before  the  coop  is  occupied.  Of  the  three 
insecticides  named,  creosote,  which  may  be  obtained  in 
paint  stores,  is  best.  Brood  coops  should  be  sprayed 
inside  and  outside  every  2  wk.  with  an  insecticide  of 
some  kind,  the  work  being  done  in  the  morning  when 
the  hen  and  chicks  are  ranging,  in  order  to  avoid  injury 
to  the  chicks  by  the 
fumes  of  the  liquid 
used.  The  floor  of 
the  brood  coop  must 
be  cleaned  frequently 
to  avoid  the  accumu- 
lation of  droppings 
and  other  filth,  be- 
cause odors  that  are  ..=Mgi4B3W™* 
injurious  to  both  hen  ^^TW^,^ 

and  chicks  arise  from  FIG.  2 

such  accumulations. 

Weaning  Age.— When  she  is  permitted  to  do  so,  the 
mother  hen  weans  the  chicks  when  they  are  from  6  to 
8  wk.  of  age,  although  some  hens  are  ready  to  leave 
the  chicks  when  they  are  4  to  5  wk.  old,  and  a  few 
other  hens  will  continue  to  mother  their  chicks  until 
they  are  12  wk.  old.  If  she  is  confined  to  the  brood 
coop  and  not  permitted  to  wander,  the  hen  may  be 
kept  with  the  chicks  until  their  covering  of  feathers  is 
complete.  The  chicks  should  not  be  weaned  until  they 
are  sufficiently  grown  to  care  for  themselves  and  to 
be  warm  at  night.  Up  to  the  first  of  June  they  do 
well  if  they  are  kept  with  the  hen  until  they  are  10 
or  12  wk.  old;  from  June  to  Oct.  they  are  usually  fit 
to  wean  at  the  age  of  8  wk. ;  and  if  they  are  unusually 


102 


BROODING 


well  grown,  they  can  care  for  themselves  at  a  younger 
age.  Regardless  of  age,  the  chicks  should  remain 
with  the  hen  until  they  are  fit  to  care  for  themselves, 
this  fitness  depending  on  size  and  a  sufficiency  of 
feathers  to  keep  the  chicks  warm  at  night; 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

Brooders.— A  mechanical  device  for  aiding  in  raising 
chicks  without  the  care  of  hens  is  called  a  brooder. 
The  essential  parts  of  a  brooder  are  the  hover  and  the 
nursery.  The  hover  supplies  the  heat  necessary  to  keep 
the  chicks  warm;  the  nursery  is  the  exercising  room  for 

the  chicks.  A  brooder 
should  be  so  arranged 
that  the  chicks  will 
have  plenty  of  room, 
sunshine,  warmth, 
and  fresh  air;  a 
brooder  that  supplies 
all  these  necessities 
forms  a  comfortable 
home  for  the  chicks. 
If  any  of  the  fore- 
going requisites  are 
lacking,  the  strain 
of  artificial  brooding 
will  be  most  trying 
on  the  vitality  of  the 
>  chicks  and  injurious 
>to  their  health.  The 
best  brooders  are 
those  that  have  all 
the  requirements  nec- 
essary for  growing  the  chicks  to  a  healthy  maturity. 
Hovers  are  heated  in  several  ways,  but  those  that 
are  heated  with  lamps  have  the  advantage  of  uniform 
heat  and  good  ventilation.  Lamps  give  the  most 
satisfactory  heat  for  small  brooders,  and  they  are 


FIG.  3 


BROODING 


103 


also  used  for  heating  brooders  that  have  a  capacity  for 
more  than  a  hundred  chicks.  All  of  the  several  systems 
used  in  brooding  have  lamps  as  the  source  of  heat  for 
small  brooders. 

A  successful  type  of  hover  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
This  is  circular*  allowing  no  corners  for  chicks  to 
crowd  in,  and  because  of  the  way  in  which  the  heat 
from  the  lamp  is  deflected,  the  space  immediately  behind 
the  curtain  is  warmer  than  the  space  next  to  the  lamp, 
thus  removing  any  inclination  on  the  part  of  the  chicks 


FIG.  4 

to  huddle  together.  These  hovers  may  be  used  in  a 
brood  coop,  the  unoccupied  space  in  the  coop  being  used 
for  the  nursery,  or  they  may  be  placed  in  a  house  with 
a  small  wire-netting  fence  about  each  to  prevent  the 
chicks  from  wandering  away  from  the  hover.  Two 
of  these  hovers  arranged  in  this  way  are  shown  in 
Fig.  4. 

In  Fig.  5  is  shown  another  type  of  hover  in  a  two- 
apartment  colony  brooder  coop.  The  hover  is  shown 
in  the  left-hand  section  of  the  brood  coop.  The  right- 
hand  section  may  also  hold  a  hover  if  desired.  After 


104 


BROODING 


the  chicks  have  grown  to  sufficient  size  the  hover  may 
be    removed   and   coop   used   as    a   colony    coop   for   the 


FIG.  5 

growing  chicks.  When  this  is  done  a  roost  pole  about 
3  in.  wide  on  top  and  placed  about  1  ft.  from  the  back 
and  8  in.  above  the  floor  is  put  in  the  coop. 

Brooding  boxes  of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  6  and  that 
can  be  used  without  artificial  heat  are  called  fireless 
brooders.  Chicks  in  brooders  of  this  kind  are  warmed 
by  the  heat  from  their  own  bodies;  the  linings  of  the 
box  hold  the  heat  about  the  chicks,  thereby  preventing 
them  from  suffering  from  the  cold  unless  the  temperature 

is  extremely  low.  Dur- 
ing cold  or  stormy 
weather,  the  box  must 
be  kept  indoors.  A 
box  that  is  24  in. 
square  and  12  in.  high 
can  be  made  as  shown 
in  Fig.  7.  The  inside 
of  the  box  must  be 
lined  with  woolen 
cloth  and  woolen  cloth 
must  hang  from  the 
FIG.  6  lids,  as  shown  in  the 

two  illustrations.  There 

must  be  small  round  holes  a  through  both  sides  of  the 
box  for  ventilation.  The  floor  of  the  box  must  be  cov- 
ered 2  or  3  in.  deep  with  fine-cut  clover  hay  or  chaff. 


BROODING 


105 


FIG.  7 


It  is  quite  difficult  to  have  both  heat  and  ventilation  if 

25  or  30  chicks  are  shut  up  in  a  box  of  this  kind.    They 

will  keep  warm  enough 

to     live,     but     without 

ventilation     they     will 

die. 

Temperature  for 
Brooders.  —  Proper 
warmth  is  of  prime  im- 
portance in  artificial 
.brooding.  If  the  chicks 
are  chilled,  they  are  of  little  value  thereafter;  if  over- 
heated, they  lose  vitality.  The  frequent  occurrence  of 
either  chilling  or  overheating  or  both  will  destroy 
an  entire  lot  of  chicks.  A  temperature  of  about  105°  F. 
does  not  injure  the  young  chicks  half  as  much  as  a 
temperature  of  60°  F.  A  chill  causes  indigestion,  loss 
of  appetite,  and  bowel  trouble,  from  which  the  chick 
seldom  or  never  recovers.  The  proper  degree  of  heat 
should  be  maintained  with  absolute  regularity,  and 
there  should  be  none  but  the  slightest  change  of 
temperature  inside  the  brooder. 

The  temperature  inside  the  brooder  beneath  the  hover 
where  the  chicks  go  to  keep  warm  should  be  90°  F., 
during  the  first  7  da.  This  temperature  should  be  re- 
duced a  little  each  day  thereafter  until  the  temperature 
is  80°  F.  beneath  the  hover.  This  is  the  correct  tem- 
perature for  the  young  chicks;  if  the  chicks  are  warmer 
than  this  they  suffer  from  the  heat;  if  the  temperature 
is  less,  the  chicks  are  chilled  and  ailments  result.  With 
this  temperature  beneath  the  hover,  the  nursery  should 
be  about  70°  F.  The  chicks  come  from  the  nursery  of 
the  incubator  where  the  heat  is  about  95°  F.  and  at  first 
they  should  have  the  same  degree  of  heat  in  the  hover. 

Securing  of  Proper  Temperature.— The  lamp  for  the 
brooder  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  sufficient  oil  for 
1  day's  burning.  It  must  be  strongly  made  of  heavy 
metal,  so  that  it  will  stand  rough  usage.  The  wick 
in  the  lamp  must  be  long,  and  both  the  wick  and  the 


106  BROODING 

lamp  must  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  The  charred  or  burnt 
part  should  be  removed  daily  from  the  wick.  In  order 
to  regulate  the  heat  and  thoroughly  dry  out  the  inside 
of  the  brooder,  the  lamp  must  be  lighted  a  day  in 
advance  of  the  coming  of  the  chicks. 

The  directions  for  operating  brooders  recommend  tem- 
peratures that  range  from  85°  F.  to  110°  F.  during  the 
first  2  wk.  Although  these  records  differ  25°  F.,  the 
temperature  beneath  the  hover  should  be  alike  in  all. 
Brooders  of  different  construction  show  different  read- 
ings of  temperature,  because  the  thermometer  used 
was  placed  near  the  heat  supply  or  far  from  it,  in 
accordance  with  the  different  methods  of  heating.  From 
this  it  will  be  understood  that  each  brooder  must  have 
a  thermometer  suited  to  its  heating  equipment  and  that 
no  other  kind  will  accurately  register  the  degree  of 
heat  that  is  required  for  the  brooder  in  use. 

Not  all  brooder  thermometers  are  alike  nor  are  they 
placed  in  the  same  positions  in  the  brooder.  If  a 
short  thermometer  should  be  used  where  a  long  one  is 
required,  the  temperature  would  be  taken  above  the 
proper  line.  Because  of  this  fact  an  incorrect  idea 
would  be  obtained  of  the  heat  conditions  within  the 
brooder,  which  would  probably  be  kept  too  cold,  thus 
causing  the  chicks  to  crowd  together  to  keep  warm. 
Long  thermometers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8  (a),  are  suited 
to  some  brooders,  and  short  thermometers  as  shown  in 
(6)  are  suited  to  others.  If  one  thermometer  is  used 
where  the  other  should  be  used,  the  temperature 
inside  of  the  hover  will  not  be  correctly  taken.  Each 
kind  of  a  brooder  must  have  a  thermometer  that  takes 
the  temperature  from  a  given  line  beneath  the  hover; 
the  position  of  this  line  is  given  in  the  manufacturer's 
directions  for  operating  the  brooder.  No  rule  other  , 
than  the  one  given  in  those  directions  is  safe  to  follow, 
and  the  thermometer  to  be  used  must  be  adapted  to  the 
brooder  in  which  it  is  placed. 

The  temperature  within  the  hover  is  regulated  by  the 
size  of  the  flame  of  the  lamp.  The  flame  should  be 


BROODING 


107 


shaped  like  that  of  the  most  perfectly  trimmed  house 
lamp;  that  is,  it  should  conform  to  the  shape  of  the 
burner  top — slightly  higher  at  the  center  and  of 
crescent  shape.  A  pointed  or  irregular  flame  is  liable  to 
cause  trouble.  The  flame  of  the  lamp  should  be  increased 
if  more  heat  is  needed  and  should  be  lowered  to 
lessen  the  heat.  In  some  brooders,  automatic  regulators 
assist  In  keeping  an  even  temperature  beneath  the  hover, 
but  they  are  not  absolutely 
to  be  relied  on.  The  heat  in 
the  brooder  should  be  regu- 
lated to  conform  to  weather 
conditions.  When  it  is  cold 
or  damp  outside,  more  heat 
is  needed  under  the  hover 
and  in  the  nursery  than  is 
needed  when  a  higher  tem- 
perature is  at  hand. 

Troubles  of  Chicks  Due  to 
Lack  of  Care  in  Brooding. 
Brooder  chicks  are  more 
subject  to  certain  troubles 
than  those  brooded  natu- 
rally, due  to  the  failure  to 
provide  the  right  conditions 
and  a  lack  of  care  in  brood- 
Weakness  of  the  legs, 


ing. 

contraction  of  the  muscles, 
crooked  toes,  and  vertigo  are 
among  the  ailments  most 
prevalent  among  brooder 


(a) 


FIG.  8 


chicks.  They  result  from  overheating,  from  chilling,  or 
from  eating  unwholesome  food.  Slipping  on  smooth 
places  may  bend  the  legs  of  young  chicks.  Overheating 
will  cause  them  to  suffer,  and  too  much  heat  under  the 
floor  will  shrivel  the  flesh  on  their  shanks  and  feet. 
None  of  these  troubles  will  occur  in  broods  of  chicks 
that  are  raised  in  a  brooder  environment  that  is  reason- 
ably good. 


108  BROODING 

POINTS  IN  SUCCESSFUL  BROODING 

Brood  coops  should  be  perfectly  sanitary  and  free 
from  vermin,  and  should  be  painted  with  liquid  insec- 
ticide at  least  a  week  before  they  are  occupied.  They 
should  also  be  sprayed  with  insecticide  every  2  wk. 
while  in  use,  and  the  floors  must  be  cleaned  frequently. 

Brood  coops  should  be  ready  a  day  in  advance  of  the 
time  when  the  chicks  are  to  be  placed  in  them,  and  the 
temperature  should  be  about  90°.  This  temperature 
should  be  maintained  for  7  da.,  after  which  it  should 
be  gradually  reduced  to  80°. 

If  newly-hatched  chicks  become  chilled  they  will  be 
seriously  injured,  and  if  they  are  overheated  they  will 
lose  vitality.  The  proper  heat  must  be  maintained 
with  regularity. 

The  directions  given  by  the  manufacturers  for  the 
operation  of  brooders  should  be  strictly  followed,  and 
the  particular  kind  of  thermometer  recommended  should 
be  used.  Temperature  readings  are  taken  at  different 
heights,  according  to  the  construction  of  the  brooder, 
and  if  the  thermometers  used  are  too  long  or  too  short 
the  temperature  readings  will  be  misleading. 

Overcrowding  in  brooders  should  be  avoided.  When 
a  brooder  is  overcrowded  the  air  becomes  impure,  and 
this  will  result  in  a  loss  of  vitality. 

As  soon  as  chicks  are  able  they  should  be  allowed  to 
run  in  the  open,  but  they  should  be  protected  from 
predatory  animals  by  covered  runways. 

During  inclement  weather  chicks  should  be  induced 
to  take  exercise  by  scattering  small  grains  in  the  litter. 

After  each  meal,  unconsumed  food  should  be  removed 
from  the  floor  of  the  brooder.  If  it  is  left  to  be  trampled 
over  and  becomes  sour,  it  will  cause  bowel  troubles. 

Chicks  that  contract  ailments  of  any  kind  should  be 
isolated  immediately. 

A  critical  stage  in  the  life  of  chicks  is  when  they  are 
feathering,  and  at  this  time  they  should  be  supplied 
with  an  abundance  of  nitrogenous  foods. 


EGGS  109 


EGGS 

Food  Value  of  Eggs.— Eggs  are  a  cheap  food.  At  25c. 
a  dozen  they  are  less  costly  than  most  meats.  One 
dozen  eggs  will  better  serve  a  family  of  six  than  1J^ 
Ib.  of  meat,  a  fair  valuation  of  which  is  about  30c. 

A  comparison  of  the  relative  food  value  of  eggs, 
meat,  and  bread  is  favorable  to  bread,  yet  bread  does 
not  fully  supply  the  needs  of  the  body.  If  lOc.  were 
spent  for  five  eggs  that  contain  about  .6  Ib.  of  total 
food,  it  would  provide  .08  Ib.  of  protein  and  .05  Ib.  of 
fat  having  a  fuel  value  of  425  calories.  The  same  amount 
expended  for  lean  meat  at  20c.  per  pound  would  buy 
.5  Ib.  of  food  material  that  contains  about  .08  Ib.  of 
protein  and  .09  Ib.  of  fat  having  a  fuel  value  of  643 
calories.  The  same  sum  spent  for  bread  would  buy  a 
2-lb.  loaf,  which  would  contain  about  .18  Ib.  of  protein, 
.03  Ib.  of  fat,  and  1.06  Ib.  of  carbohydrates  having  a 
fuel  value  of  2,532  calories.  From  the  foregoing  it  will 
be  seen  that  eggs  do  not  furnish  the  heat-producing 
materials  in  such  large  quantities  as  do  meat  and 
bread. 

Composition  of  Eggs.— About  11%  of  hens'  eggs  consist 
of  shell,  32%  of  yolk,  and  57%  of  white.  The  white 
and  yolk  are  made  up  of  72%  of  water.  The  accompany- 
ing table,  adapted  from  a  bulletin  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  gives  the  composition  and 
fuel  value  of  the  eggs  of  the  common  domestic  poultry, 
and,  for  purpose  of  comparison,  the  composition  and  fuel 
value  of  some  of  the  more  common  foods  other  than 
these. 

Uses  of  Eggs.— In  addition  to  their  use  as  food,  eggs 
are  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  other  purposes.  The 
white  of  an  egg  is  a  remedy  for  burns,  and  if  taken  in 
time  it  is  an  effective  antidote  for  poisoning  by  corrosive 
sublimate.  Food  or  bones  lodged  in  the  throat  can 
sometimes  be  dislodged  by  swallowing  a  raw  egg. 
The  oil  extracted  from  the  yolk  has  healing  properties. 


110 


EGGS 


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i-HCO»-<00       C500 


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EGGS 

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112  EGGS 

and  the  inner  lining  or  membrane  of  the  shell  can  be 
used  as  an  adhesive  plaster.  Eggshells,  on  account  of 
the  purity  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  of  which  they  are 
largely  composed,  are  used  in  compounding  medicine 
and  for  several  other  purposes. 

There  is  a  limited  demand  for  rotten  eggs  for  the 
finishing  of  some  kinds  of  leather.  They  may  be  used 
as  fertilizer,  and  in  many  instances  they  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  calico.  The  supply,  however,  is 
much  greater  than  the  demand,  and  such  eggs  bring 
but  a  few  cents  a  dozen.  Often  the  price  paid  for  them 
is  not  sufficient  to  cover  the  cost  of  transportation,  which 
in  most  cases  is  paid  by  the  shipper. 

Color  of  Eggshells.— Fowls  of  European  origin  lay 
white-shelled  eggs;  those  of  Asiatic  origin  lay  dark- 
shelled  eggs,  as  a  rule.  The  eggs  of  different  varieties 
of  the  same  breed  may  differ  slightly  in  color.  For 
example,  the  eggs  of  dark-plumaged  fowls  have  darker- 
colored  shells  than  those  of  the  lighter-plumaged  fowls. 

A  cross  between  two  breeds,  one  of  which  lays 
brown-shelled  eggs  and  the  other  white-shelled  eggs, 
results  in  fowls  that  lay  eggs  of  a  color  intermediate 
between  the  brown  and  the  white.  There  is  also 
considerable  variation  in  the  color  of  eggs  from  different 
hens  of  the  same  variety.  The  color  of  the  shell  is 
more  pronounced  in  the  eggs  first  laid  than  in  those 
laid  later  in  the  season.  All  fowls  having  the  least 
amount  of  Asiatic  blood  show  this  influence  in  the  tinted 
shells.  The  more  of  Asiatic  blood  a  fowl  has  in  its 
veins  the  darker  will  be  the  color  of  the  eggshell. 
The  eggs  with  the  darkest  color  of  shell  are  laid  by  the 
Langshans. 

The  New  York  market  pays  the  highest  prices  for 
white-shelled  eggs,  and  the  Boston  market  pays  the  high- 
est prices  for  brown-shelled  eggs.  In  other  markets  the 
matter  of  color  of  shell  is  one  of  small  importance. 

The  color  of  shell  produced  by  the  most  popular  egg- 
producing  breeds  is  given  in  the  following  list. 


EGGS  113 

Brown  Shells  White  Shells 

Brahmas  Anconas 

Cochins  Andalusians 

Dorkings  Crevecceurs 

Dominiques  Campines 

Faverolles  Games  (some  have  a  tint) 

Indian  Games  Hamburgs 

Javas  Houdans 

Langshans  Leghorns 

Orpingtons  La  Fleche 

Plymouth  Rocks  Minorcas 

Rhode  Island  Reds  Polish 

Wyandottes  Redcaps 
Spanish 

Weight  of  Eggs.— Marketable  eggs  should  weigh  not 
less  than  2  oz.  each.  At  this  weight,  a  crate  of  30  doz. 
eggs  will  weigh  45  lb.,  exclusive  of  the  crate,  and  such 
eggs  will  bring  much  better  prices  in  the  market  than 
eggs  of  smaller  size.  Eggs  much  larger  than  2  oz.  are 
not  profitable  to  sell,  because  they  bring  very  little,  if 
any,  higher  price  in  the  general  market,  and  hens  do 
not  lay  as  many.  For  a  special  market,  however,  it  is 
sometimes  possible  to  get  a  premium  on  eggs  that 
average  about  2^  oz. 

The  weight  of  eggs  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the 
breed  of  fowls  that  lay  them  and  also  on  the  peculi- 
arities of  individual  fowls.  The  following,  however, 
gives  the  average  weight  of  various  eggs: 

Eggs  Ounces 

8  hens'  eggs,  average  16 

11  guinea    eggs    16 

1  duck   egg   3 

1  turkey   egg   4 

1  goose  egg  6  to  7 

Washing  of  Eggs.— Eggs  that  are  so  badly  soiled  as 
to  need  washing  to  fit  them  for  market  may  be  cleaned 
with  a  solution  made  up  of  1  oz.  of  ammonia  to  2  qt.  of 
water.  Soiled  eggs  may  also  be  washed  in  warm  water 
and  rubbed  dry  with  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  or  flannel. 
Deep  stains  may  be  removed  by  rubbing  with  dry, 
coarse  salt.  When  cleaned  in  this  way  they  should  be 


114 


EGGS 


rinsed  in  lukewarm  water.  Stained  eggs  are  sometimes 
cleaned  in  lukewarm  water  that  contains  a  small  quan- 
tity of  soap. 

After  soiled  eggs  have  been  cleaned  their  appearance 
is  improved  by  rubbing  them  with  a  cloth  that  has 
been  moistened  with  a  solution  made  up  of  4  oz.  of 
salt  to  1  pt.  of  vinegar;  this  treatment,  however,  is  not 
necessary  for  eggs  that  have  been  washed  in  a  solution, 
containing  ammonia. 

Fluctuation  of  the  Egg  Yield.— The  yield  of  eggs  be- 
gins to  decline  in  the  warm  months,  just  before  the 
molt  begins— in  the  northern  hemisphere,  in  July  and 
Aug.  In  that  hemisphere  the  yield  steadily  declines 
until  Nov.  or  Dec.,  when  the  minimum  number  of  eggs 


t/oft.      Fei>        /%•/- 


\T 


N 


is  produced.  In  Jan.  the  yield  begins  to  grow  larger 
and  increases  steadily  until  the  growing  season,  the 
maximum  usually  coming  in  April  or  May.  The  rise 
and  decline  of  the  egg  yield  are,  of  course,  reversed  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  The  accompanying  illustration 
shows  the  percentage  yield  of  eggs  by  months  in  the 


EGGS 


115 


United  States  as  compared  with  Australia.  As  shown 
by  this  figure  a  daily  egg  yield  of  73%  during  Dec. 
may  be  obtained  from  a  flock  of  good  hens  in  Australia, 
and  in  that  month  in  the  United  States  similar  hens 
may  give  but  an  18%  yield. 

In  all  localities  the  fewest  eggs  are  produced  during 
the  season  of  molt  and  the  period  immediately  following 
that  season.  In  the  United  States,  the  molt  occurs 
during  the  months  that  intervene  between  July  and 
Jan.  Naturally,  eggs  will  sell  for  the  highest  prices  at 
this  time.  Hens  should  be  encouraged  to  lay  during 
these  months.  To  accomplish  this,  pullets  must  be 
hatched  in  March  or  earlier,  and  hens  should  molt  during 
Aug.  There  is  more  heat  and  less  cold  in  Australia 
than  in  the  United  States,  but  the  greater  profit  will 
be  made  when  a  prolific  yield  of  eggs  during  the  winter 
months  has  been  secured. 

Percentage  of  Loss  of  Total  Egg  Crop.—  According  to 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  about  17% 
of  the  total  egg  crop  of  the  country  is  lost,  because  of 
improper  handling,  or  because  of  unsanitary  conditions 
where  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  accompanying  table  shows 
the  percentage  of  loss  of  the  total  egg  crop  due  to 
various  causes. 


PERCENTAGE   LOSS   OF  TOTAL  EGG  CROP 


Class 


Per  Cent. 


Dirty  eggs 

Broken  eggs 

Chick  development 

Shrunken  or  held  eggs 

Rotten  eggs 

Moldy  and  bad-flavored  eggs 

Total... 


17 


116 


EGGS 


EGG  PRODUCTION  RECORDS 

Variations  in  Egg  Production.— The  egg  records  given 
in  the  accompanying  table  show  the  actual  performance 
of  four  hens  from  the  same  flock  and  illustrate  the  im- 
portance of  selecting  for  breeding  purposes  hens  with  an 
established  record. 

3-YR.  EGG  RECORD 


Year 

Number  of  Eggs  Laid 

Hen  A 

HenB 

HenC 

HenD 

First 

207 
185 
136 

186 
.    197 
117 

202 
129 
96 

170 
30 
0 

Second  

Third 

Total  eggs  laid  in  3  yr  — 

528 

500 

427 

200 

A  was  the  strongest  and  most  persistent  layer;  in  her 
third  year  she  laid  more  than  most  hens  do  in  their 
first  year.  B  and  C  were  also  good  layers.  Although 
D  was  a  good  layer  in  her  first  year,  she  was  unable 
to  continue  laying  the  second  year.  Hens  with  a  record 
like  hers  must  not  be  selected  to  keep  up  a  flock.  Her 
small  ability  would  not  have  been  discovered  had  she 
not  been  retained  and  a  careful  record  of  her  per- 
formance kept.  It  is  only  by  keeping  such  records  that 
the  poor  layers  can  be  discovered  and  eliminated,  and 
a  desirable  strain  established.  Little  is  known  of  the 
largest  possible  egg  yields,  but  it  is  certain  that  there 
are  hens  that  are  capable  of  producing  more  than 
500  eggs  in  3  yr.  With  a  flock  of  such  hens  as  an 
ultimate  goal,  satisfactory  results  are  bound  to  be 
achieved,  provided  the  right  individuals  are  selected  to 
maintain  the  flock.  Pullets  that  are  hatched  in  the 


EGGS  i!7 

early  spring  lay  at  an  earlier  age  than  do  late-hatched 
pullets.  March-hatched  pullets  frequently  lay  in  July, 
while  those  hatched  in  July  seldom  lay  before  the 
following  March. 

Relation  of  Weight  of  Eggs  to  Egg  Production.— As 
a  general  rule,  the  larger  the  number  of  eggs  laid 
by  a  fowl,  the  lighter  in  weight  the  eggs  will  average. 
This  is  shown  in 'the  accompanying  table,  which  is  a 
summary  of  the  egg  record  of  4,362  hens  of  fifteen 
different  varieties  that  laid  a  total  of  732,082  eggs,  the 
records  of  the  different  lots  of  fowls  being  taken  over 
a  period  of  5  yr.  In  the  table,  the  fowls  are  arranged 
with  those  laying  the  heaviest  eggs  per  doz.  at  the  top 
and  those  laying  the  lighter  eggs  coming  in  their  proper 

RELATION  OF  WEIGHT  OF  EGGS  TO  EGG 
PRODUCTION 


Variety 

Number 
of 
Hens 

Number 
of  Eggs 
Laid 

Weight 
per 
Dozen 
Ounces 

Average 
Number 
of 
Eggs 

Andalusian  

72 

11,883 

26.85 

162.26 

Single-Comb  Black  Mi- 
norca 

156 

23910 

26.72 

146.85 

Langshan  

108 

17,766 

26.03 

164.50 

^Vhite  Leghorn 

984 

173  939 

26.00 

176.75 

Ancona  

42 

5,883 

25.94 

140.00 

Black  Orpington 

954 

162,623 

25.61 

170.45 

Buff  Orpington  

234 

35,199 

25.25 

150.42 

Buff  Wyandotte  .    .    . 

66 

10,479 

24.71 

157.85 

Silver  Wyandotte  
Brown  Leghorn  
White  Wyandotte  
Golden  Wyandotte  .... 
Rose-Comb  White  Leg- 
horn   

834 
180 
90 
108 

66 

139,694 
32,593 
14,066 
16,902 

11,578 

24.50 
24.47 
24.45 
24.38 

24.31 

167.49 
-  181.08 
156.25 
156.50 

173.90 

Black  Hamburg  
Rose-Comb  Brown  Leg- 
horn   

30 

72 

5,554 
13,155 

24.19 
22.74 

185.00 
182.70 

Total,  all  varieties.  .  . 

4,362 

732,082 

25.28 

167.50  ' 

118  EGGS 

order.  The  Black  Hamburgs  and  the  Rose-Comb  Brown 
Leghorns  that  produced  the  two  highest  average  egg 
records  produced  the  lightest-weight  eggs,  and  though 
the  results  obtained  are  not  all  exactly  in  accordance 
with  this  statement,  a  careful  inspection  of  the  table 
will  show  that  on  an  average  hens  with  high  egg  records 
produced  light-weight  eggs,  and  that  the  hens  with 
the  lowest  egg  records  produced  somewhat  heavier  eggs. 
Since  little  attention  is  paid  in  the  market  to  the  weight 
of  eggs,  it  is  obvious  that  the  best  egg  producers  are  the 
most  profitable. 

Relation  of  Egg  Production  to  Season.— In  spite  of  the 
many  assertions  that  hens  lay  more  prolifically  at  one 
time  of  the  year  than  at  another,  an  inspection  of  the 
egg  records  of  a  large  number  of  fowls  fails  to  show 
any  uniformity  in  regard  to  this  point,  but  rather  tends 
to  indicate  that  egg  production  is  more  a  matter  of 
individuality  than  of  season.  The  egg  records  given  in 
the  accompanying  table  have  been  taken  from  laying 
hens  in  America,  England,  and  Australia.  The  records 
of  some  exceptionally  high  egg  producers  have  been 
selected  and  also  the  average  production  of  a  large 
number  of  fowls  where  it  was  possible  to  obtain  authen- 
tic records  of  this  character.  It  will  be  noted  that 
the  individual  fowls  that  make  high  egg  records  lay 
consistently  throughout  almost  every  month  in  the 
year,  and  that  the  only  time  when  they  fall  off  in  egg 
production  is  during  the  molting  period  or  when  they 
are  broody. 

The  single  hens  that  do  not  make  such  high  egg 
records  usually  lay  very  well  for  certain  months  in 
the  year,  but  are  unable  to  stand  the  strain  of  heavy 
egg  laying  and  fail,  sometimes  almost  completely, 
in  other  months. 

When  the  average  egg  production  of  a  large  number 
of  fowls  is  taken,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  cer- 
tain similarity  between  their  rates  of  monthly  pro- 
duction,  but  if  the  record  of  the  80  White  Leghorn 
hens  in  America  is  compared  with  that  of  the  28 


EGGS 


119 


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120  EGGS 

American  Wyandottes  and  the  6,771  hens  of  assorted 
varieties  in  America,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  egg 
production  in  the  cold  months  was  fully  as  large  as  in 
the  spring  months,  and  that  the  production  declined 
only  in  the  fall  when  the  fowls  were  molting.  Some 
hens  that  are  prolific  egg  producers  in  their  first  year 
prove  very  unsatisfactory  in  their  subsequent  years, 
as  for  instance,  the  Australian  Silver  Wyandotte  noted 
in  the  table.  To  be  sure  that  no  such  hens  are  selected 
for  breeders,  it  is  necessary  that  careful  egg  records 
be  kept. 


PRESERVATION    OF   EGGS 

COLD   STORAGE   OF  EGGS 

Eggs  intended  for  storage  must  be  selected  with 
care  and  must  be  packed  in  clean  cases.  When  so 
selected  and  packed  and  kept  at  temperatures  that 
range  from  29°  F.  to  34°  F.,  very  little,  if  any, 
change  takes  place  in  the  quality  of  the  eggs.  While 
in  storage,  they  should  be  protected  as  far  as  possible 
from  air  circulation,  as  this  increases  evaporation  and 
causes  the  eggs  to  shrink.  On  removing  the  eggs  from 
storage,  they  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  not  warmer 
than  42°  F.  until  exposed  for  sale.  When  it  becomes 
necessary  to  expose  the  eggs,  it  should  be  done  gradually 
in  order  to  avoid  sweating. 

The  air  in  cold-storage  houses  should  be  free  from 
moisture  and  bad  odors  of  every  kind.  The  yolks 
of  eggs  kept  long  in  storage  at  a  temperature  of  32°  F. 
settle  to  one  side,  unless  the  eggs  are  occasionally  moved 
about.  At  temperatures  lower  than  32°  F.,  the  eggs 
become  more  or  less  solid  and  do  not  require  turning. 

PICKLING  OF  EGGS 

The  success  obtained  from  preserving  eggs  depends 
largely  on  the  care  given  to  the  selecting  of  the  eggs, 
the  preparation  of  the  preserving  liquid,  and  the  placing 


EGGS 


121 


of  the  eggs  where  the  temperature  will  be  even  and  cool. 
Eggs  laid  during  the  month  of  April  are  usually  the 
best  for  storing.  Those  laid  in  May  or  June  are  next 
best.  Eggs  laid  in  April  are  usually  very  choice,  be- 
cause at  this  time  the  fowls  have  a  plentiful  supply 
of  fresh  green  food.  Eggs  to  be  stored  should  be  clean 
and  fresh.  It  is  impossible  to  secure  good  results  in 
storage  from  eggs  -of  poor  quality. 

Eggs  may  be  preserved  in  lime  water,  provided  they 
are  kept  in  tall  vessels;  either  stone  crocks  or  butter 
tubs  can  be  used.  The  liquid  for  covering  the  eggs  is 
made  in  the  proportion  of  3  gal.  of  water  to  1  Ib.  of  salt 
and  1  qt.  of  finely  slaked 
lime,  the  lime  and  salt  to 
be  mixed  in  the  water.  This 
is  to  be  stirred  frequently 
for  a  period  of  1  to  2  da. 
Following  this,  the  liquid 
should  be  permitted  to 
settle.  The  crock  or  tub  is 
then  almost  filled  with  eggs, 
placed,  as  far  as  possible, 
with  the  small  end  down. 
The  clear  liquid  solution  of 
lime  and  salt  is  poured  over 
them  until  the  surface  of  the 
water  is  fully  an  inch  above 
the  top  of  the  eggs.  The 
vessel  should  be  kept  in  an  out-of-the-way  place,  where 
the  temperature  will  not  exceed  50°  F.  A  thin  covering 
of  lime  will  form  on  the  top  of  the  liquid.  If  undis- 
turbed, this  covering  will  protect  the  contents  from 
outer  influences. 

A  solution  made  of  1  gal,  silicate  of  soda,  or  water 
glass,  and  9  gal.  water  is  an  efficient  preservative  for 
eggs.  The  water  glass  is  dissolved  in  warm  water 
and  is  well  stirred  until  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
water.  When  cool,  this  solution  should  be  poured  over 
eggs  placed  in  vessels,  as  described  in  the  foregoing 


BLACK  ORPINGTON 


122  EGGS 

paragraph.  Eggs  will  keep  fairly  fresh  in  this  solution 
for  5  or  6  mo.,  and  they  have  been  kept  in  edible  con- 
dition for  a  year  in  a  solution  of  this  kind.  This  can 
be  accomplished,  however,  only  when  they  are  kept 
in  cool  places  and  in  a  temperature  that  does  not 
exceed  45°  F.  Experiments  have  shown  that  under 
some  conditions  a  solution  of  5%  of  water  glass  and  95% 
of  water  will  answer  well  for  the  keeping  of  eggs; 
and  they  will  keep  fairly  well  in  a  3%  solution  of 
the  same  material.  The  quality  used  depends  on  the 
strength  of  the  water  glass,  which  is  a  chemical 
preparation  that  may  be  of  several  strengths.  When 
the  water  glass  used  is  of  the  highest  grade,  less 
is  required  than  of  the  lower  grades. 

When  the  eggs  are  removed  from  either  of  these 
solutions  they  should  be  rinsed  entirely  free  from  the 
lime  water  or  the  solution  of  water  glass.  To  do  this, 
the  eggs  can  be  placed  either  in  a  sieve  or  colander, 
and  running  streams  of  fresh  water  permitted  to  pass 
through  them,  or  buckets  of  fresh  water  may  be  poured 
over  them.  After  being  thoroughly  rinsed,  and  before 
they  are  packed  for  shipment  they  should  be  laid  out 
either  on  a  dry  cloth  or  on  boards  until  they  have  become 
thoroughly  dry. 


STANDARDS  FOR  EGGS 

Eggs  are  graded  in  many  ways.  The  number  of  grades 
varies  in  different  markets.  In  general,  it  may  be 
said  that  eggs  are  graded  according  to  their  size, 
shape,  color  of  shell,  finish  of  shell,  and  general 
condition. 

In  England  an  official  standard  of  points  has  been 
adopted  for  use  in  grading  eggs,  but  in  America  there 
is  no  official  standard  that  governs  the  grade  of  eggs 
in  all  markets.  The  accompanying  table  gives  the 
American  and  English  standards  for  eggs;  the  American 
scale  of  points  given  is  of  local  origin  and  is  intended 
to  be  used  merely  as  a  suggestion. 


EGGS 
STANDARDS  FOR  EGGS 


123 


American   Standard 

English  Standard 

Points 

Points 

Shape                     .  . 

30 
40 
15 

Freshness  

40 
15 
15 

15 
15 

Color  and  finish 

Size 

Weight 

Texture  of  shell  

Condition 

15 

Uniformity     of    size, 
color,  and  shape  .  .  . 
Cleanliness  and  bloom 

Total  

Total 

100 

100 

The  rules  for  the  classification,  grading,  and  packing 
of  market  eggs  as  adopted  by  the  New  York  Mercantile 
Exchange  are  as  follows: 

RULE  1. — CLASSIFICATION  AND  GRADING 

1.  Eggs     shall     be     classified     as     "fresh     gathered," 
"held,"  "refrigerator,"  and  "limed." 

2.  There  shall   be   grades    of   "extras,"    "extra   firsts," 
"firsts,"    "seconds,"    "thirds,"    "No.    1    and    2    dirties," 
and  "checks." 

RULE  2 

1.     All  sales  of  all  grades  of  eggs  shall  be  at  mark. 
QUALITIES 

2.  Fresh  gathered  extras  shall  be  free  from  dirty 
eggs,  of  good  uniform  size,  and  shall  contain  reasonably 
fresh,  reasonably  full,  strong  bodied,  sweet  eggs,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 90%. 

B— 80%. 

C— 65%. 

The  balance— other  than  the  loss— may  be  slightly 
defective  in  strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  sweet.  The 
maximum  total  average  loss  per  case  permitted  in 
"extras"  shall  vary  with  the  requirement  of  reasonably 
full,  strong  bodied  eggs  as  follows: 


124  EGGS 

A — 90%  full,  1  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 80%  full,  iy2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C — 65%  full,  2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

When  sold,  "storage  packed"  extras  must  not  contain 
an  average  of  more  than  12  cracked  or  checked  eggs 
per  case. 

3.  Fresh    gathered    -firsts    (or    extra    firsts)     shall    be 
reasonably   clean   and   of   good   average    size,    and    shall 
contain  reasonably  fresh,  reasonably  full,  strong  bodied, 
sweet    eggs,    at    the    discretion    of    the    Egg    Committee, 
as  follows: 

A— 75%. 

B— 65%. 

C— 50%. 

D— 40%. 

The  balance — other  than  the  loss— may  be  defective 
in  strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  sweet.  The  max- 
imum total  average  loss  per  case  permitted  in  "firsts" 
or  "extra  firsts"  shall  vary  with  the  requirement  of 
reasonably  full,  strong  bodied  eggs  as  follows: 

A — 75%  full,  \l/2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 65%  full,  2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C — 50%  full,  3  doz.  maximum  loss. 

D — 40%  full,  4  doz.  maximum  loss. 
When    sold,    "storage    packed"    fresh    gathered    firsts 
(or  extra   firsts)   must   not   contain   an   average   of  more 
than  18  cracked  or  checked  eggs  per  case. 

4.  Fresh   gathered   seconds   shall   be   reasonably    clean 
and  of  fair  average   size,   and  shall   contain  reasonably 
fresh,    reasonably    full    eggs,    at    the    discretion    of    the 
Egg  Committee,   as  follows: 

A— 65%. 

B— 50%. 

C— 40%. 

D— 30%. 

The  balance— other  than  the  loss— may  be  defective 
in  strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  merchantable  stock. 
The  maximum  total  average  loss  per  case  permitted  in 


EGGS  125 

"seconds"   shall  vary  with  the  proportion  of  reasonably 
full  eggs  required,  as  follows: 

A — 65%  full,  2  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 50%  full,  3  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C— 40%   full,   4   doz.    maximum   loss. 

D — 30%  full,   5   doz.   maximum  loss. 

5.  Fresh  gathered  thirds  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and 
of    fair     average     s'ize,     and     shall     contain     reasonably 
fresh,    reasonably    full,    sweet    eggs,    at    the    discretion 
of  the  Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 50%. 

B— 30%. 

C— 20%. 

The  balance — other  than  the  loss — may  be  defective 
in  strength  or  fulness,  but  must  be  merchantable 
stock.  The  maximum  total  average  loss  per  case  per- 
mitted in  "thirds"  shall  vary  with  the  requirements 
of  reasonably  full,  sweet  eggs,  as  follows: 

A — 50%  full,  4  doz.  maximum  loss. 

B — 30%  full,  5  doz.  maximum  loss. 

C — 20%   full,    6    doz.    maximum   loss. 

6.  Held    firsts    shall    be    reasonably    clean,    of    good 
average  size,  and  sweet.     At  least  40%  shall  be  reason- 
ably   full    and    strong.      The    balance    may    be    defective 
in    strength    or    fulness,    but    not    badly    shrunken,    ex- 
cepting the  loss.     There  may  be  a  total   average   loss  of 
two   doz.    per   case,   but   if   the   loss   exceeds   that   by   not 
more  than   50%  the  eggs  shall  be  a  good   delivery  upon 
allowance  of  the  excess. 

7.  Held  seconds  shall   be  reasonably  clean  and  of  fair 
average    size.      May    be    defective    in    fulness,    strength, 
and  flavor,  but  must  be  merchantable  stock,  not  musty. 
There  may  be  a  total  average  loss  of  4  doz.  per  case. 

8.  Refrigerator  extras  shall  be  free  from  dirty  or  small 
eggs,  reasonably  full,  strong,  sweet,  and  free  from  mildew 
or  foreign  taste  or  odor. 

The   maximum   loss   shall   be,   at   the   discretion   of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 
A— \l/2  doz. 
B— 2  doz. 


126  EGGS 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
"storage  packed." 

9.  Refrigerator  firsts  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and  of 
good  average  size;  they  must  be  reasonably  full,  strong, 
and  sweet,  and  free  from  mildew  or  foreign  taste  or  odor. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 2  doz. 

B— 3  doz. 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
"storage  packed." 

10.  Refrigerator  seconds  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and 
of    fair    average    size;    they    must    be    reasonably    full, 
strong,    and    sweet,    and    free    from    mildew    or    foreign 
taste  or  odor. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 3    doz. 

B— 4  doz. 

Cases  shall  be  substantial,  and  fillers  and  packing 
reasonably  sweet. 

11.  Refrigerator  thirds  shall  be  of  fair  appearance  and 
may   be   off-flavored  to   some   extent. 

The   maximum   loss   shall   be,   at  the  discretion   of  the 
Egg   Committee,   as   follows: 
A-5  doz. 
B— 6  doz. 
Cases   shall  be  substantial. 

12.  Limed  extras  shall  be  of  uniformly  good  size,  well 
cleaned,   strong  bodied,   and  reasonably   full   and  sweet. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— \Y2  doz. 

B— 2  doz. 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
"storage  packed." 

13.  Limed  firsts  shall  be  of  good  average  size,  well 
cleaned,  of  good  strength,  reasonably  full  and  sweet. 


EGGS  127 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 2  doz. 

B-3  doz. 

Cases,  fillers,  and  packing  shall  be  as  required  for 
"storage  packed." 

14.  Limed  seconds  shall  be  of  fair  average  size,  well 
cleaned,  of  good  strength,  and  reasonably  full  and  sweet. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 

A— 3  doz. 

B— 4   doz. 

Cases  shall  be  substantial,  and  fillers  and  packing 
reasonably  sweet. 

15.  Limed  thirds  shall  comprise  stock  which  is  rusty, 
weak,    or   shows  hot   weather   defects,   but   must   contain 
at  least  50%  of  fairly  useful  quality. 

The  maximum   loss   shall   be,   at  the   discretion   of  the 
Egg  Committee,  as  follows: 
A— 5  doz. 
B— 6  doz. 

Cases  shall  be  substantial. 

16.  No.    i    dirties    may    be    offered    in    the    classes    of 
Fresh  Gathered,   Held,  and  Refrigerator.     They  must  be 
of  good,  useful  quality,  sweet  in  flavor. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  correspond  with  the  re- 
quirements for  "firsts"  in  the  class,  at  the  time  when 
offered. 

When  sold  "storage  packed,"  No.  1  dirties  must  not 
contain  more  than  18  cracked  or  checked  eggs  per  case. 

17.  No.    2    dirties    may    be    offered    in    the    classes    of 
Fresh   Gathered,   Held,   and   Refrigerator. 

The  quality,  if  fresh  gathered,  shall  be  the  same  as 
specified  for  No.  1  dirties. 

If  held,  or  refrigerator,  may  be  off-flavored,  but  not 
musty. 

The  maximum  loss  shall  correspond  with  the  re- 
quirements for  "seconds"  in  the  class,  and  at  the  time 
when  offered. 


128  EGGS 

Checked  eggs  may  consist  of  blind  checks  and  cracked 
eggs  (not  leaking).  They  must  be  sweet  in  flavor,  and 
the  loss  must  not  exceed  3  doz.  per  case. 

18.  Loss,    as    used    in    these    rules,    shall    comprise    all 
rotten,   spotted,  broken    (leaking),   broken-yolked,   hatched 
(blood-veined),   and   sour   eggs.     Very  small,   very   dirty, 
cracked    (not    leaking),    badly    heated,    badly    shrunken, 
and    salt    eggs    shall    be    counted    as    half    loss    in    all 
grades   excepting  dirties  and  checks.    *    *    * 

19.  At  the  discretion  of  the  Egg  Committee  it  may  put 
in    force    two    grades    of    firsts    at    the    same    time,    one 
requiring  a  higher  proportion  of  reasonably  full,  strong- 
bodied    eggs    than    the    other,    and    when    this    is    done, 
the   higher    of   the   two   grades    shall    be    designated   as 
"extra  firsts." 

All  requirements  for  grades  determined  upon  by  the 
Egg  Committee  must  be  chosen  from  those  specified 
under  Rule  2. 

20.  The  classification  provided  in  this  rule  shall  ap- 
ply equally  to  hen  eggs,  duck  and  goose  eggs,  but  in 
the  case  of  duck  and  goose  eggs  the  maximum  loss  shall 
be  pro  rata  with  the  number  of  dozens  contained  in  the 
packages. 

RULE  3.— PACKAGES  AND  PACKING 

1.  All    grades    of   eggs    not   storage    packed,    shall    be 
in    new    or    good   second-hand   substantial    egg   cases,    of 
uniform  size. 

Fillers  shall  be  of  substantial  quality,  sweet  and  dry, 
with  flats  or  other  suitable  substitutes  under  bottom 
layers  and  over  tops,  and  sweet,  dry  excelsior  or  other 
suitable  packing  under  bottom  and  over  tops. 

Any  grade  of  eggs  not  storage  packed,  which  shall 
inspect  in  quality  according  to  these  rules,  but  be 
deficient,  not  to  exceed  10%  in  flats  or  other  suitable 
substitutes  on  tops  and  bottoms,  shall  be  a  good 
delivery. 

2.  Storage  packed.      When   sold   as   "storage   packed," 
all  grades  must  be  in  new  30  doz.  cases,  well  seasoned, 
smooth,     clean,     and     substantial,     fillers     dry,     sweet, 


EGGS 


129 


medium,  No.  1,  or  other  good  substantial  straw  board, 
flats  under  bottom  layers  and  over  tops.  The  packing 
shall  be  dry,  sweet  excelsior  under  bottoms  and  over 
tops,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

3.  To  be  a  good  delivery,  all  eggs  must  be  packed  in 
30  doz.  cases  except  goose  eggs,  which  may  be  packed 
in  any  style  of  packages  containing  not  less  than 
10  doz.  each,  and  duck  eggs,  which  may  be  packed  in 
any  style  of  packages  containing  not  less  than  15 
doz.  each. 


EGG  PRICES 

The  average  wholesale  price  of  eggs  in  the  New  York 
market  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  This 
table  gives  a  3-yr.  average  price  paid  each  week  prior 
to  1909  for  near-by  fresh  eggs. 

MARKET  PRICE  OF  EGGS 


Per  Dozen 


Month 

First 
Week 
Cents 

Second 
Week 
Cents 

Third 
Week 
Cents 

Fourth 
Week 
Cents 

January  

32 

30 

29 

30 

February.  .  . 

29 

28 

30 

23 

March  

23 

23 

17 

17 

April  .  . 

18 

17 

17 

18 

May  

18 

18 

18 

18 

June  .... 

18 

19 

19 

19 

July  

19 

19 

21 

21 

August  

21 

22 

23 

23 

September  

24 

24 

24 

24 

October  '.  

25 

25 

25 

26 

November  

29 

30 

33 

33 

December.  . 

32 

32 

34 

33 

The    great    difference    in    value    between    the    average 
price  of  all  grades  of  eggs  and  fresh  eggs  is  shown  in 


130 


EGGS 


the  accompanying  table  giving  the  comparison  of  monthly 
average  egg  prices  per  dozen  for  all  grades  of  eggs 
and  for  strictly  fresh  eggs  in  the  New  York  market 
prior  to  1909. 

COMPARISON     OF    MONTHLY    AVERAGE     PRICES 
OF  EGGS 


Month 

Average  Price  for 
All  Grades 
Cents 

Average  Price  for 
Strictly  Fresh 
Eggs 
Cents 

January  .  .        

25.8 

42 

February 

24  5 

40 

March   

19.3 

32 

April 

16  9 

30 

May  

16.6 

31 

June  

15.5 

32 

fuly 

15.6 

35 

August  

17.7 

38 

September 

20.7 

40 

October  

21.4 

42 

November 

26.0 

45 

December  

27.7 

42 

Markets   of   the   World   That   Govern   Egg   Quotations. 

The  market  quotations  for  eggs  throughout  the  world 
are  governed  largely  by  the  prices  paid  in  the  densely 
populated  centers.  New  York,  Boston,  and  Chicago 
make  the  prices  for  America,  and  London,  Manchester, 
and  Berlin  make  the  prices  for  Europe.  Eggs  are 
quoted  by  the  dozen  in  America;  in  London,  the  quota- 
tion is  by  the  long  hundred  (120).  Eggs  are  designated 
in  the  London  market  according  to  the  locality  from 
which  they  are  sent,  and  as  this  is,  to  a  certain  extent, 
an  indication  of  their  freshness  and  quality,  it  has 
an  influence  on  the  quotations.  The  highest  quotations 
are  for  the  best  English  eggs,  which  are  fully  equal  to 
fancy  hennery  eggs  in  America;  and  French,  Danish, 
and  Italian  eggs  will  grade  with  near-by  eggs  and  eggs 


EGGS 


131 


for  storage  in  America.  The  best  of  the  eggs  that  are 
sent  from  Ireland  to  London  sell  for  English  eggs, 
and  the  rest  sell  for  lower  prices.  Russian  eggs  grade 
about  the  same  as  shrunken  and  ungraded  eggs  in  the 
New  York  market. 

NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON  QUOTATIONS 


New 

York 

London  Prices 

Kind  of  Eggs 

Prices 
per 
Dozen 

Kind  of  Eggs 

per  120  Eggs 
Shillings  and 
Pence 

Cents 

Fancy  hennery 

25 

English 

8/4  to  9/2 

Near-by  fresh  

23 

Irish 

7/6  to  7/10 

Fit  for  storage  

23 

French  

8/3  to  8/9 

Brown  and  mixed 

22 

Danish 

8/3  to  9/6 

Shrunken 

21 

Italian 

8/0  to  8/6 

Ungraded  and  soiled. 

19 

Austrian  .... 

7/3  to  8/6 

Russian  

7/0  to  7/3 

A  comparison  of  prices  in  the  New  York  and  London 
markets  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table,  which  gives 
the  quotations  in  the  two  markets  for  the  month  of 
May,  1909.  As  the  English  shilling  is  equivalent  to 
24^  cents  in  American  money  and  an  English  penny 
is  equivalent  to  2  cents,  the  first  London  quotation  of 
%  to  %  for  120  eggs,  or  10  doz.,  is  about  equal  to  20 
to  22c.  per  dozen.  The  quotations  given  cannot  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  guide  for  the  selling  price  of  eggs,  but  they 
furnish  an  approximate  indication  of  the  relative  sell- 
ing prices  in  New  York  and  London.  It  will  be  noted 
by  comparison  that  the  New  York  prices  are  about 
10  to  12%  higher  than  the  London  prices.  The  fluctu- 
ations of  prices  in  both  markets  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year  are  about  the  same. 


132 


MARKET  POULTRY 


MARKET  POULTRY 

Digestibility  of  Poultry  and  Other  Foods.— In  poultry 
and  other  meats  and  fish,  about  70%  of  the  protein, 
95%  of  the  fat,  and  98%  of  the  carbohydrates  is  diges- 
tible. The  food  principles  in  vegetable  foods  are  not 
as  fully  digestible,  for  in  such  foods  only  about  84% 
of  the  protein,  90%  of  the  fat,  and  97%  of  the  carbohy- 
drates are  digestible. 

In  the  table  giving  the  composition  of  poultry  and 
certain  other  foods  is  shown  the  composition  of  some 

foodstuffs,  and  it  will 
be  seen  from  this 
that  poultry  meat 
compares  very  favor- 
ably in  food  value 
with  beef,  fish,  eggs, 
milk,  and  potatoes. 
On  an  average,  the 
various  kinds  of 
poultry  furnish  not 
far  from  5%  more 
protein  and  a  little 
more  ash  than  do  the 
other  kinds  of  meat 
included  in  the  table. 
On  the  other  hand, 
the  poultry  meats 

most  used — chicken  and  fowl — contain  relatively  little 
fat  and  have  a  relatively  small  fuel  value.  Pound  for 
pound,  poultry  contains  a  trifle  more  of  the  building 
materials  required  by  the  body,  but  furnishes  less  of 
the  energy-giving  materials  than  the  fat  meats.  As  a 
general  thing,  young  fowls  contain  less  refuse  than  older 
ones,  which  means  that  the  proportion  of  total  bone 
weight  is  smaller;  their  flesh  also  contains  more  water, 
which  indicates  that  it  is  not  so  solid  and  compact  as  in 
older  fowls. 


SILVER-GRAY  DORKING 


MARKET  POULTRY 


133 


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134 


MARKET  POULTRY 


Loss  of  Weight  in  Dressing  Fowls.— On  an  average, 
nearly  one-third  of  the  total  weight  of  a  fowl  is  lost 
in  dressing  and  in  preparing  it  for  cooking.  In  the 
case  of  fowls  thin  in  flesh,  the  loss  is  much  greater  than 
this.  The  least  waste  occurs  in  fowls  that  have  been 
properly  fattened.  Excessively  fat  fowls  and  also 
those  that  are  poor  in  flesh  show  a  large  proportion  of 
waste  on  being  dressed. 

The  table  showing  the  loss  in  dressing  fowls  is  a 
summary  of  an  investigation  at  the  Storrs  Experiment 
Station,  Connecticut.  In  this  experiment  fowls  in  all 
conditions — well-fattened,  thin,  and  excessively  fat — were 
used,  and  their  weights  at  different  stages  in  the  process 
of  dressing  were  noted.  Consequently  the  results  given 
in  the  table  may  be  considered  as  applicable  to  average 
conditions. 

LOSS  IN  DRESSING  FOWLS 


Weight- 

Intes- 

Kind of 
Fowls 

Num- 
ber of 
Birds 

Live 
Weight 
Pounds 

Weight- 
Bled  and 
Plucked 
Pounds 

Loss 
Per 

Cent. 

tines, 
Head, 
and 
Feet  Re- 
moved 

Loss 
Per 
Cent. 

Pounds 

Cocks  

18 

127.9 

117.9 

7.8 

97.8 

23.5 

Cockerels  . 

278 

1,773.0 

1,577.5 

11.0 

1,312.0 

26.0 

Hens  

201 

1,195.0 

1,103.4 

7.7 

906.3 

24.2 

Pullets  

47 

261.1 

240.0 

8.1 

193.7 

25.8 

Total... 

544 

3,357.0 

3,038.8 

9.5 

2,509.8 

25.2 

The  per  cent,  loss  in  dressing  fowls  of  different 
breeds  is  given  in  the  following  table. 

Classes  of  Market  Poultry.— There  are  two  general 
classes  of  market  poultry,  the  heavy-weight  and  the  me- 
dium-weight. The  heavy-weight  class  includes  such 
fowls  as  the  Brahmas,  Cochins,  Dorkings,  and  Orpingtons. 


MARKET  POULTRY 


135 


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Breed  of  Fowls 

Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  . 
White  Plymouth  Rocks.  . 
White  Wyandottes  
Buff  Wyandottes  
Rhode  Island  Reds  
Black  Langshans  
Single-Comb  White  Legho 
Rose-Comb  Brown  Legho 
White  Wyandotte-L  i  g 
Brahma  cross  

•3 

g 

136 


MARKET  POULTRY 


The  medium-weight  class  includes  such  general-purpose 
fowls  as  the  Wyandottes  and  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  In 
addition  to  these  fowls,  broilers  and  other  small  market 
fowls  are  often  made  from  Leghorns  and  crosses  of 
Leghorns  with  some  of  the  general-purpose  fowls. 

Classes  of  Broilers  and  Roasters.— Broilers  are  divided 
into  three  classes:  squab  broilers,  spring  broilers,  and 
fryers  or  large  broilers  or  small  roasters.  Squab  broilers 
range  in  size  from  34  to  1  Ib.  each  in  weight.  They 
are  used  by  hotels  and  restaurants  during  the  winter 
and  early  spring.  Spring  broilers  are  used  a  little  later 
in  the  season.  When  plump  they  range  in  weight  from 
1  to  V/2  Ib.  The  weight  demanded  increases  as  the 
season  advances,  until  the  2-lb.  size  is  most  popular. 
Fryers,  large  broiler's,  or  small  roasters  range  in  weight 
from  2  to  3  Ib.  Roasters  are  generally  of  two  kinds: 
plump,  meaty  roasters  and  soft  roasters. 

The  .  time  required  to  produce  broilers  and  roasters 
is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  The  time  required 
for  a  chick  to  grow  to  marketable  size  depends  largely 
on  the  quality  of  the  chick  and  its  breed.  Not  all 
breeds  mature  alike,  and  the  individuals  of  any  one 
breed  will  not  develop  at  a  uniform  rate,  but  when 
bred  and  fed  as  they  ought  to  be  the  average  is  about 
as  indicated  in  the  table. 

TIME  REQUIRED  TO  RAISE  BROILERS  AND 
ROASTERS 


3 

3 

.s 

.2 

.a 

_g 

Breeds  of  Fowls 

Growth, 
in  Pounds 
8  Wk. 

Growth 
in  Pounds 
10  Wk. 

Growth 
in  Pounds 
12  Wk. 

Growth 
in  Pounds 
21  Wk. 

Growth 
in  Pounds 
26  Wk. 

Growth, 
in  Pounds 
30  Wk. 

Leghorns  

1 

1& 

American  breeds 

1 

ilA 

2 

4 

6 

7 

English      and      Belgian 
breeds  

1 

\Yi 

2 

4 

6 

7 

Brahmas 

IK 

2 

2H 

5 

7 

9 

MARKET  POULTRY  137 

KILLING  AND  PLUCKING  OF  POULTRY 

Killing. — The  most  satisfactory  methods  of  killing 
poultry  are  by  dislocating  the  neck,  and  by  sticking 
in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  piercing  the  brain  with 
a  knife. 

In  killing  by  dislocating  the  neck,  the  fowl  is  held  in 
front  of  the  operator  with  the  head  hanging  down; 
both  shanks  are  firmly  grasped  with  the  left  hand; 
the  neck  of  the  fowl  at  the  base  of  the  skull  is  taken 
between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand, 
with  the  back  of  the  hand  toward  the  tail  of  the  fowl 
and  the  head  held  firmly  in  the  palm  of  the  hand;  the 
head  is  then  pulled  downwards  to  extend  the  neck  to 
its  full  length;  the  final  step  in  the  operation  is  taken 
by  pulling  with  a  jerk  the  already  taut  neck  and  at 
the  same  time  twisting  the  head  upwards,  This  will 
dislocate  the  head  from  the  backbone,  paralyzing  the 
fowl,  snap  the  arteries  in  the  neck,  and  pull  the  head 
away  from  the  neck,  leaving  a  cavity  in  the  neck  large 
enough  to  hold  the  blood  of  the  fowl.  In  this  operation 
no  blood  will  escape  from  the  body,  and  it  is  preferred 
by  some  as  the  best  method  of  killing  fowls  intended  for 
immediate  sale.  When  such  fowls  are  prepared  for 
cooking,  if  the  head  is  severed  1  or  2  in.  back  of  where 
the  blood  has  settled,  all  of  the  blood  clot  will  be 
removed. 

Killing  by  sticking  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  may  be  done 
with  a  special  killing  knife  or  with  a  common  pocket 
knife  that  has  a  sharp  point  and  blade.  Both  shanks  of 
the  fowl  are  tied  with  a  small  piece  of  rope  and  the  loose 
end  of  the  rope  is  tied  to  some  support  so  that  the  fowl 
will  hang  head  downwards  and  at  about  the  height 
of  the  operator's  shoulder.  The  head  of  the  fowl  is 
grasped  in  the  left  hand,  the  mouth  pressed  open,  and 
the  blade  of  the  knife  thrust  through  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  up  into  the  brain  almost  in  a  line  with 
the  eye;  a  cross-cut  is  made  to  sever  the  arteries.  This 
operation  paralyzes  the  fowl  instantly,  and  the  cutting 


138 


MARKET  POULTRY 


of  the  arteries  allows  the  fowl  to  bleed  freely  from  the 
mouth.  To  avoid  being  splashed  with  blood,  the  mouth 
of  the  fowl  should  be  held  away  from  the  operator. 
This  method  of  killing  is  commonly  practiced  in  most 
market  poultry  establishments. 

Plucking. —  To  make  the  best  appearance  when  offered 
for  sale  in  the  market,  a  fowl  must  be  plucked  carefully 
so  that  the  skin  will  not  be  torn.  An  experienced  plucker 
will  rub  the  feathers  down  the  wrong  way  both  on  the 
back  and  breast,  using  the  flat  of  his  hand  to  press 
down  and  open  up  the  plumage.  When  the  feathers  are 
separated  in  this  way  they 
may  be  quickly  plucked 
from  the  body  by  holding 
the  shanks  and  the  tips  of 
the  feathers  in  the  hand. 
The  feathers  should  first  be 
pulled  from  the  back,  then 
from  the  breast  and  body, 
leaving  only  the  long,  stiff 
feathers.  These  should  be 
plucked  and  placed  by  them- 
selves. The  best  plan  is  to 
put  the  long  feathers  or 
those  having  heavy  quills 
into  a  box  or  barrel  separate 
from  the  smaller  or  lighter 
feathers.  With  some  prac- 
tice the  operator  will  soon  learn  to  remove  all  of  the 
feathers  quickly  from  the  body  of  the  fowl.  The  process 
should  begin  immediately  after  the  fowl  has  been  killed. 
By  whatever  method  it  is  killed,  the  feathers  will  come 
away  easier  immediately  after  killing  than  they  will 
after  the  body  of  the  fowl  has  cooled  and  become  set. 

The  practice  of  scalding  before  plucking  is  generally 
followed.  The  chief  difficulty  in  this  is  that  the  fowls 
are  dipped  into  water  that  is  too  hot  and  are  frequently 
kept  immersed  so  long  that  the  skin  is  scalded  and 
breaks  and  pulls  from  the  body,  leaving  an  ugly  dark 


MARKET  POULTRY 


139 


complexion.  In  scalding  the  fowls,  the  water  should  not 
be  boiling  when  they  are  immersed,  nor  should  boil- 
ing hot  water  be  poured  over  them.  They  should  be 
immersed  in  water  not  quite  boiling,  and  as  quickly 
as  the  feathers  are  thoroughly  soaked  they  should  be 
plucked  gently  from  the  body.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  tear,  the  flesh  or  skin. 


POULTRY  PRICES 

A  careful  inspection  of  poultry  prices  over  a  period 
of  years  shows  plainly  that  market  poultry  of  good 
quality  will  sell  at  the  highest  prices  from  the  middle 
of  Dec.  to  the  end  of  June.  This  is  due,  to  a  large 
extent,  to  the  scarcity  of  farm-grown  poultry  in  the 
market  during  these  months. 

The  condition  in  which  poultry  is  offered  for  sale 
has  an  important  influence  on  the  price  it  will  sell  for. 
The  relative  selling  price  per  pound  live  weight,  plucked 
weight,  and  drawn  weight  of  the  same  fowl  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  table.  The  plucked  weight  is  the 
weight  of  the  fowl  with  the  feathers  removed  but  with 
the  head  and  feet  left  on.  The  drawn  weight  is  the 
weight  with  the  head,  feet,  and  entrails  removed  and 
the  fowl  ready  for  cooking.  It  will  be  seen  from  this 
table  that  the  selling  price  per  pound,  plucked  weight, 
is  about  33!/&%  more  than  the  live  weight,  and  that  the 
price  per  pound,  drawn  weight,  is  about  100%  greater 

MARKET    VALUE    OF    FOWLS    AT    DIFFERENT 
STAGES 


Live  Weight 
Cents  per  Pound 

Plucked  Weight 
Cents  per  Pound 

Drawn  Weight 
Cents  per  Pound 

9 
10     . 
11 
12 

12  H 

131A 
14  H 
16 

16  K 

20 
22 

23  H 

140 


BREEDING 


than  for  the  live  weight,  and  about  50%  greater  than 
for  the  plucked  weight.  This  increase  in  the  selling 
price  is  due,  of  course,  to  the  removal  of  the  waste 
parts  and  also  to  the  labor  entailed.  The  table  furnishes 
a  guide  to  decide  the  price  to  be  fixed  on  the  plucked 
or  drawn  weight  of  any  grade  of  poultry. 


BREEDING 

The  most  important  systems  of  breeding  poultry  for 
exhibition  are  line  breeding,  inbreeding,  strain  breeding, 
and  cross-breeding.  In  any  system  of  breeding,  only 
the  best  breeding  fowls  obtainable  should  ever  be  used 
in  the  breeding  pen.  All  fowls  having  defects  should 
be  promptly  discarded,  even  if  this  leaves  only  two  or 
three  fowls  in  the  breeding  pen.  Fully  enough  poor 
specimens  come  from  the  best  matings,  and  so  few 
good  specimens  come  from  matings  in  which  either  of 
the  fowls  are  defective  that  time  and  money  is  wasted 
in  such  breeding.  Only  fowls  having  the  proper  size, 
shape,  and  color  required  for  the 
variety  can  produce  satisfactory 
offspring.  The  plan  of  mating 
fowls  defective  in  one  section 
with  other  fowls  having  excel- 
lent quality  in  the  correspond- 
ing section  usually  results  in 
the  production  of  offspring  hav- 
ing not  more  than  medium 
quality  in  that  section. 

Line  Breeding.— Line  breeding 
is  a  system  of  breeding  from  a 
limited  number  of  original 
fowls,  in  which  the  fowls  mated 
SILVER  LACED  WYANDOTTE  are  not  so  closely  related  as  in 
inbreeding;  line  breeding  is  really  a  modified  form  of  in- 
breeding. Line  breeding  is  often  continued  for  a  number 
of  years  without  the  introduction  of  new  blood  into  the 


BREEDING  141 

flock,  but  in  such  cases  great  care  is  taken  to  breed 
from  only  the  healthiest  and  most  vigorous  members 
of  the  flock.  To  maintain  the  vitality  of  the  flock, 
only  mature  hens  in  their  second  or  third  year  of  laying 
are  bred  from.  The  success  of  any  work  in  line  breed- 
ing depends  on  the  quality  of  the  original  fowls  that 
are  selected  as  Breeders,  and  the  judgment  with  which 
the  later  breeders  are  selected,  both  for  their  quality 
and  for  their  vitality. 

Inbreeding.— Inbreeding  is  a  system  of  breeding  in 
which  the  fowls  mated  are  very  closely  related,  being 
direct  descendants  of  a  very  few  original  fowls.  In- 
breeding differs  materially  from  line  breeding  on  account 
of  the  closeness  of  the  relationship  of  the  fowls.  The 
best  fowls  produced  each  year  are  mated  with  breeders 
of  the  previous  season  and  with  each  other,  even  to  the 
extent  of  pairing  brother  with  sister.  Inbreeding  is 
carried  on  chiefly  with  a  view  to  improving  color  in  a 
flock.  Shape  may  be  improved  by  this  system  of  breed- 
ing, but  this  is  not  usually  the  case.  Loss  of  size 
and  deterioration  of  shape  are  undesirable  features 
that  usually  attend  inbreeding,  and  the  maintenance 
of  vitality  is  also  a  serious  problem.  The  undesirable 
consequences  of  inbreeding  can  be  avoided  only  by  the 
most  careful  attention  to  the  details  of  breeding  and 
to  the  selection  of  the  breeding  fowls.  In  most  cases, 
the  introduction  of  new  blood  into  the  breeding  stock 
will  be  necessary. 

Strain  Breeding.— Strain  breeding  is  a  system  of  breed- 
ing consisting  in  breeding  fowls  of  one  variety  in  line 
for  a  number  of  generations  from  a  few  original  fowls; 
this  breeding  must  also  be  conducted  by  one  breeder, 
or  his  successors.  A  strain  cannot  be  said  to  be  estab- 
lished, even  after  three  or  four  generations  of  breeding, 
unless  the  indications  are  plain  that  the  original  fowls 
selected  for  the  foundation  of  the  strain  have  been  able 
to  transmit  their  characters  through  the  series  of  gen- 
erations, and  also  to  cause  the  production  of  offspring  of 
better  quality  than  themselves. 


142 


BREEDING 


From  the  preceding  statements,  it  is  evident  that  a 
valuable  strain  can  be  produced  only  by  the  most  careful 
selection  of  the  foundation  stock,  and  the  most  skilful 
breeding  during  the  succeeding  generations.  Chance  breed- 
ing cannot  be  relied  on  to  produce  satisfactory  results. 
Cross-Breeding.— Cross-breeding  is  of  two  kinds: 
breeding  together  of  fowls  of  different  breeds;  and 
breeding  together  of  fowls  of  the  same  variety  but 
which  come  from  different  localities  or  from  different 
strains.  Most  commonly,  cross-breeding  is  understood 
to  be  the  mating  together  of  fowls  of  different  breeds, 
such,  for  instance,  as  a  Plymouth  Rock  to  a  Wyandotte, 
or  a  Rhode  Island  Red  to  an 
Indian  Game.  This  form  of 
cross-breeding  is  often  utilized 
in  the  production  of  broilers 
and  roasters  for  market,  the 
offspring  from  such  crosses  be- 
ing useless  for  breeding  to- 
gether. The  other  form  of 
cross-breeding,  or  of  breeding 
for  an  out-cross,  is  usually  prac- 
ticed in  the  breeding  of  poultry 
for  exhibition,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  introducing  new  blood 
into  a  strain  to  improve  vitality. 

Methods  of  Mating.— Mating  is  the  act  of  pairing  a 
male  and  a  female  for  the  purpose  of  producing  offspring. 
The  two  general  methods  of  mating  are  single  mating 
and  double  mating.  Single  mating  consists  in  mating 
together  a  male  and  a  female. 

When  fowls  are  mated  for  the  production,  from  the 
same  pair,  of  both  male  and  female  offspring  fit  for 
exhibition,  the  process  is  called  single  mating.  This  is 
the  method  of  mating  commonly  practiced  in  the  mating 
of  fowls  of  most  varieties.  This  method  of  mating 
does  not,  however,  produce  the  best  results  when  the 
production  of  the  most  delicately  marked  fowls  of  the 
varieties  most  difficult  to  produce  is  desired. 


WHITE  WYANDOTTE 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       143 

The  mating  of  one  pair  of  fowls  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  male  offspring  fit  for  exhibition  and  another 
pair  for  the  production  of  female  offspring  fit  for  exhi- 
bition is  called  double  mating.  This  is  practiced  to  a 
great  extent  in  the  production  of  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Brown  Leghorns,  partridge-colored  fowls  of  all 
breeds,  and  to  scmie  extent  in  producing  fowls  that  have 
penciling  or  lacing  in  their  plumage.  In  double  mating, 
great  care  is  taken  to  see  that  the  male  and  the  female 
blood  lines  are  kept  separate,  for  if  blood  lines  are 
crossed,  color  will  be  injured. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF 
POULTRY 


ENEMIES 

GENERAL  REMARKS 

A  parasite  is  any  creature  that  secures  the  whole  or 
part  of  its  living  from  another.  The  parasites  that 
attack  poultry  are  insects. 

Methods  of  Infestation  by  Parasites.— Poultry  become 
infested  with  parasites  in  many  ways,  and  it  is  advis- 
able for  the  poultryman  to  keep  a  close  watch  to 
prevent  such  infestation.  Some  of  the  most  common 
ways  in  which  poultry  becomes  infested  with  parasites 
are:  (1)  by  the  introduction  of  an  infested  fowl  into  a 
flock;  (2)  by  a  hen  infesting  her  chicks  when  they  are 
incubated  or  brooded  in  a  natural  way;  (3)  by  allowing 
infested  fowls  to  roam  at  liberty;  (4)  by  sparrows;  (5) 
by  the  parasites  crawling  up  on  roosts  that  are  not 
protected  by  safety  appliances;  (6)  by  the  parasites 
dropping  on  the  fowls  from  the  ceilings  of  houses;  (7) 
in  nest  boxes;  (8)  in  dust  baths. 

Effects  of  Parasites  on  Poultry.— Parasites  cause  more 
disease,  ill  health,  and  death  among  poultry  than  all 


144       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

other  causes  combined.  The  following  are  the  principal 
specific  effects  resulting  from  parasites:  (1)  They  re- 
duce the  vitality  of  poultry;  (2)  they  lessen  egg  pro- 
duction; (3)  they  deduct  from  the  table  qualities  of  fowls 
intended  for  market  poultry;  (4)  they  interfere  with 
the  proper  performance  of  the  natural  duties  of  incuba- 
ting and  brooding;  (5)  they  cause  the  loss  of  parts 
of  a  fowl's  body;  (6)  they  infest  poultry  with  other  and 
additional  varieties  of  parasites;  (7)  they  infect  poultry 
with  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases 

Rapidity  of  Reproduction  of  Poultry  Parasites.— The 
exact  time  required  for  poultry  parasites  to  produce 
new  generations  cannot  be  stated  definitely.  Under 
favorable  conditions,  however,  all  kinds  of  poultry  para- 
sites are  very  prolific  and  will  increase  to  an  alarming 
extent.  Salmon  states  that  the  third  generation  from  a 
single  louse  may  number  more  than  120,000,  and  all  of 
these  may  be  produced  within  a  period  of  8  wk.  Such 
a  rapid  increase  being  possible,  the  result  of  intro- 
ducing into  a  flock  a  fowl  that  is  thoroughly  infested 
with  parasites  can  readily  be  surmised.  Such  a  fowl  is 
sure  to  do  injury. 

Poultry  parasites  multiply  particularly  fast  in  damp, 
filthy,  unsanitary  places — surroundings  that  are  unfavor- 
able to  poultry  even  when  not  infested  with  parasites. 
Poultry  parasites,  however,  will  also  develop  rapidly 
in  clean  places  if  the  air  is  allowed  to  remain  hot 
and  moist  for  any  length  of  time. 

PARASITES  ATTACKING  DOMESTIC  FOWLS 

The  parasites  that  are  found  occasionally  on  domestic 
poultry  are:  Large  chicken  louse  (Goniocotes  abdomi- 
nalis) ;  lesser  chicken  louse  (Goniocotes  hologaster.)  The 
Goniodes  dissimilis  and  the  Goniocotes  burnettii  are  rarely 
found  on  fowls. 

A  louse  that  is  sometimes  found  on  fowls  and  which 
does  considerable  damage  to  the  feathers  when  present 
in  large  numbers  is  the  variable  chicken  lorse,  or 
feather  louse  (Lipeurus  variabilis). 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OP  POULTRY       145 

The  parasites  that  frequently  infest  domestic  poultry 
are:  Common  hen  louse  (Menopon  pallidum);  red  mite, 
chicken  mite,  or  red  spider  louse  (Dermanyssus  gallinae) ; 
itch,  or  scab,  mite  (Cnemidocoptes  laevis,  var.  gallinae), 
scaly  leg  mite  (Cnemidocoptes  mutans). 

The  parasites  infesting  turkeys,  peafowls,  and  guinea 
fowls,  in  addition  to  the  common  hen  louse  and  the  red 
mite  are  Lipeurus  polytrapesius,  Goniodes  stylifer,  Gonio- 
cotes  rectangulatus,  Goniodes  falcicornis,  and  similar  ones. 

The  parasites  most  commonly  infesting  water  fowls 
are  Trinoton  luridum;  Lipeurus  squalidus,  which  is  com- 
monly found  on  ducks;  Trinoton  lituratum;  Ornithobius 
cygni,  which  is  commonly  found  on  geese;  and  Doco- 
phorus  cygni,  which  is  commonly  found  on  swans. 

The  parasites  most  commonly  infesting  pigeons  are: 
Common  pigeon  louse  (Goniocotes  compar),  Lipeurus  bacu- 
lus,  Goniodes  danticornis,  and  two  varieties  of  fleas. 

INSECTICIDES 

The  substances  that  are  used  to  kill  insects  are  called 
insecticides.  The  three  general  classes  of  insecticides 
that  are  employed  to  kill  the  parasites  that  infest  poul- 
try are  powders,  liquids,  and  fumes.  The  powders  have 
to  be  dusted  on  the  bodies  of  the  parasites  so  that  the 
fine  particles  of  the  material  will  be  drawn  into  the 
breathing  tubes  of  the  insects.  These  tubes  are  thus 
clogged,  and  the  insect  dies  of  suffocation.  The  liquids 
kill  because  they  are  corrosive  or  because  they  get  into 
the  breathing  tubes  of  the  insects  and  suffocate.  The 
fumes  employed  kill  because  they  suffocate. 

All  poultry  parasites  except  mites  can  be  kept  under 
control,  so  far  as  their  presence  on  the  bodies  of  birds 
is  concerned,  by  the  use  of  insect  powders.  Insect 
powders,  however,  are  not  so  efficient  for  destroying 
parasites  about  poultry  buildings  as  liquid  and  fume 
insecticides.  Insecticides  containing  arsenic,  such  as 
Paris  green,  or  other  deadly  poisons,  should  never  be 
used  about  poultry  buildings,  as  they  are  likely  to  poison 
both  poultry  and  attendants. 


146       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

Powder  Insecticides.— To  be  suitable  for  killing  the 
parasites  of  poultry  that  can  be  destroyed  by  powders, 
a  powder  must  be  very  fine— at  least  as  fine  as  ordinary 
road  dust— perfectly  dry,  and  not  possess  any  adhesive 
qualities.  Many  kinds  of  powders  are  used  for  destroy- 
ing the  parasites  of  poultry.  They  consist  of  substances 
that  range  from  the  most  deadly  poisons  to  the  most 
harmless  materials,  and  from  ill-smelling  powders  to 
those  that  have  no  odor.  No  advantage  is  gained  by 
using  either  poisonous  or  offensive  smelling  powders 
to  kill  the  parasites  of  poultry,  and  they  are  dangerous 
both  to  the  poultry  and  the  person  applying  them. 

Some  of  the  many  kinds  of  insect  powders  are  men- 
tioned and  briefly  described  here  because  one  or  more  of 
them  can  be  found  in  any  locality.  The  powders 
described  do  not  include  those  that  are  specially  pre- 
pared and  sold  in  packages  under  a  trade  name.  Any 
of  the  following  powders  may  safely  be  used  for  dusting 
on  poultry  of  all  kinds. 

Aniseed  powder  is  made  from  the  seed  of  the  anise 
plant,  which  grows  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  This 
powder  is  suitable  for  use  about  young  chicks,  poults, 
ducklings,  and  goslings. 

Pyrcthrum  powder  is  also  commonly  known  as  Persian 
or  Dalmatian  insect  powder  and  as  Buhach.  It  is  usually 
sold  by  the  pound  in  drug  stores.  This  powder  is  com- 
monly made  from  the  dry  flowers  of  certain  species  of 
chrysanthemums  which  are  grown  in  Persia,  Dalmatia, 
and  neighboring  lands,  and  in  California.  When  pure, 
this  powder  is  one  of  the  very  best  powders  that  can  be 
used  for  dusting  into  the  plumage  of  fowls,  both  old 
and  young. 

Fine  tobacco  dust,  which  is  a  refuse  from  tobacco  facto- 
ries, is  an  effective  insecticide.  It  is  suitable  for 
dusting  into  nests,  and  will  destroy  body  lice.  Tobacco 
dust  has  the  disadvantage  that  it  will  stick  to  the  skin 
of  the  fowls.  It  also  has  a  disagreeable  odor,  which 
is  intensified  by  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  bodies 
of  the  birds. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       141 

Stai-csacre  seed  powder  is  made  from  the  seed  of  a 
species  of  larkspur  that  grows  in  Southern  Europe.  It  is 
a  poisonous  substance,  and  delphinin,  a  poisonous  drug,  is 
made  from  this  seed.  When  fine,  this  powder  is  a  good 
insecticide. 

Dry  air-slaked  lime  makes  an  effective  insect  powder 
on  account  of  its  extreme  fineness. 

Road  dust  will  answer  as  an  insecticide  when  used 
alone,  provided  it  is  very  fine.  It  is  also  used  as  a 
base  to  mix  with  finely  ground  powders  to  make  insecti- 
cides. To  make  sure  that  road  dust  is  fine  enough  to 
be  valuable  as  an  insecticide,  it  should  be  passed 
through  a  very  fine 
sieve,  similar  to  that 
used  by  druggists  for 
separating  the  coarser 
from  the  finer  par- 
ticles in  a  powder. 

Compound  insect  pow- 
ders composed  as  fol- 
lows will  be  found 
effective: 

1.  Fine  road  dust 
that     has     been    care- 
fully sieved  and  mixed 
with    an    equal    quan- 
tity     of      Pyrethrum 

powder.     This  will  be  very  effective  provided  the  Pyreth- 
rum powder  is  pure  and  the  road  dust  very  fine. 

2.  Equal   parts   of   air-slaked   lime,    tobacco    dust,    and 
fine   dust   from   coal    ashes.      If   very    fine   and   dry,    this 
mixture    will    be    suitable    for    dusting    into    nest    boxes 
or  on  the  bodies  of  fowls.      It  may,   however,  adhere  to 
the  bodies  of  the  fowls  and  cause  irritation. 

Liquid  Insecticides.— Liquid  insecticides  are  more  ef- 
fective for  application  to  the  interior  of  poultry  buildings 
than  powder  insecticides,  for  the  reason  that  they  can  be 
sprayed  into  all  the  cracks  and  crevices.  When 
thoroughly  applied,  a  good  liquid  insecticide  will  rid 


WHITE  LEGHORNS 


148       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

a  house  of  practically  all  the  parasites  that  are  in  it. 
Some  insects  such  as  red  mites  can  conveniently  be 
exterminated  only  by  the  use  of  liquid  insecticides. 
When  liquid  insecticides  of  any  kind  are  used  as  either 
a  spray  or  a  paint,  on  poultry  buildings,  they  should  be 
allowed  to  soak  into  the  wood  and  dry  thoroughly  be- 
fore the  fowls  are  permitted,  to  go  inside  of  the  building. 
Liquid  insecticides  of  some  kinds  may  also  be  applied 
to  the  bodies  of  poultry. 

Some  liquid  insecticides  are  applied  by  themselves 
without  dilution  or  combination  with  any  other  material; 
in  the  form  of  an  emulsion  with  other  liquids;  or  with 
other  materials  in  solution  in  them.  A  description  of 
the  principal  liquid  insecticides  in  use  at  the  present 
time  follows: 

Creosote  is  widely  used  as  an  insecticide.  It  is  also 
known  in  some  localities  as  crude  carbolic  acid  and  as 
creosote  stain.  Creosote  is  a  coal-tar  product.  It  is  not 
an  expensive  material  and  is  usually  sold  in  paint 
stores.  In  large  quantities  it  can  be  purchased  at  from 
40c.  to  50c.  per  gal.,  and  in  small  quantities  at  from  80c. 
to  $1  per  gal.  Creosote  is  used  for  shingle  stains  and 
as  a  wood  preservative  for  many  other  kinds  of  wood- 
work. If  it  is  desired  to  color  the  inside  or  outside 
of  the  houses  to  which  creosote  is  to  be  applied,  dry 
paint  can  be  added  to  it.  Creosote  is  the  best  liquid 
insecticide  for  spraying  on  the  interior  of  poultry  houses. 
Two  or  three  applications  of  this  material  will  rid  any 
building  or  coop  of  insect  vermin  of  all  kinds. 

Creosote  bought  at  different  times  and  in  different 
places  will  not  always  be  of  the  same  viscosity  or 
thickness.  When  very  thick  it  may  need  to  be  diluted 
in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  creosote  to  from  3  to  4 
parts  of  kerosene  oil,  in  order  to  get  it  in  the  proper 
condition  for  spraying.  Thinner  samples  of  creosote  may 
need  to  be  diluted  with  only  2  parts  of  kerosene  oil  to 
make  it  suitable  for  spraying.  For  painting  roost  poles 
and  nest  boxes,  the  thinner  kind  of  creosote  is  commonly 
used  without  any  dilution;  the  thicker  kind  is  usually 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       149 

diluted  with  2  parts  of  kerosene  oil  when  used  for  this 
purpose.  Roost  poles  may  also  be  satisfactorily  painted 
with  a  wash  made  up  of  equal  parts  of  creosote  and 
hot  water.  When  roost  poles  and  nest  boxes  are  treated 
with  this  mixture,  they  should  be  allowed  to  dry  in 
the  sun  before  being  put  back  in  the  house;  when  the 
roost  poles  are  put  back  in  the  house  their  ends  should 
be  painted  with  a  coat  of  the  undiluted  thick  creosote.  A 
mixture  of  2l/2  gal.  of  creosote,  2l/2  gal.  of  water,  and  1  Ib. 
of  washing  soda  will  also  make  an  effective  wash  for 
nests,  roosts,  and  brood  coops.  If  this  is  used  hot  and 
applied  in  a  spray,  its  effectiveness  will  be  increased. 

After  a  house  has  been  thoroughly  freed  of  parasites, 
the  roost  poles  and  the  interior  of  the  nest  boxes  should 
be  coated  with  one  of  the  above  mixtures  of  creosote 
once  a  week  for  a  month,  and  occasionally  thereafter. 
This  work  should  always  be  done  before  noon  so  that 
the  creosote  will  have  time  to  dry  before  night. 

Crude  petroleum  is  an  inflammable  oily  liquid  from 
which  a  number  of  other  oils  that  are  used  for  com- 
mercial purposes  are  obtained  by  processes  of  refining. 
It  is  also  called  coal  oil,  earth  oil,  mineral  oil,  natural 
oil,  rock  oil,  and  Seneca  oil.  Crude  petroleum  is  a  dark 
brown  to  greenish  liquid. 

Kerosene  is  an  inflammable  oil  distilled  from  crude 
petroleum  or  any  mineral  hydrocarbon.  Kerosene  is 
suitable  for  spraying  the  interior  of  poultry  houses,  but 
is  not  well  suited  for  applying  to  the  bodies  of  fowls. 
Inflamed  eyes,  blisters,  and  sore  spots  on  the  skin, 
will  result  when  kerosene  is  applied  direct.  It  is  abso- 
lutely unfit  to  use  on  the  bodies  of  young  chicks. 

Benzine  is  a  colorless,  inflammable,  and  volatile  liquid 
obtained  from  distillation  of  crude  petroleum.  While 
it  is  often  used  as  an  insecticide,  it  is  dangerous  to 
handle  because  of  its  inflammability. 

Gasoline  is  also  a  colorless,  volatile,  and  inflammable 
liquid  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  crude  petroleum. 
It  is  dangerous  to  handle  for  the  same  reason  that 
benzine  is  dangerous. 


150       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

Turpentine  is  a  product  of  such  trees  as  the  pine  and 
other  similar  trees.  It  is  much  used  in  the  making  of 
paints  and  varnishes  and 'also  in  medicine.  It  is  in- 
flammable and  will  irritate  the  skin. 

Creoline,  a  liquid  manufactured  especially  for  use  as 
an  insecticide,  is  effective  in  killing  the  insect  enemies 
of  poultry.  Crecline  may  be  used  in  the  interior  of. 
poultry  houses  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  3  fluid  oz. 
of  creoline  to  1  gal.  of  water. 

Carbolic  acid  is  largely  used  in  the  destruction  of 
poultry  parasites.  A  solution  made  of  \l/2  fluid  oz.  of 
carbolic  acid  to  1  gal.  of  water  is  strong  enough  for 
this  purpose.  Carbolic  acid  is  sometimes  added  to  white- 
wash so  that  sanitary  conditions  can  be  improved  at 
the  same  time  that  an  insecticide  is  applied.  When 
used  in  this  way,  however,  carbolic  acid  does  not  have 
as  effective  insecticidal  properties  as  when  it  is  used 
without  whitewash. 

Milk  emulsion  is  usually  first  made  up  in  a  concen- 
trated or  stock  solution,  or  cream  solution  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  and  theiv  diluted  just  before  it  is 
applied.  To  make  the  stock  solution,  add  2  gal.  of 
kerosene  to  1  gal.  of  milk  and  churn  or  mix  thoroughly 
with  a  force  pump  or  other  agitator.  This  stock  solution 
should  be  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  1  gal.  of  the  stock 
solution  to  4  gal.  of  warm  water.  Crude  petroleum, 
benzine,  gasoline.,  or  turpentine  may  be  substituted  for 
kerosene  in  this  formula.  Kerosene,  however,  can  usu- 
ally be  purchased  cheaper  than  the  other  liquids  except 
crude  petroleum. 

Soap  emulsion  is  also  usually  first  made  up  in  a  stock 
solution  and  then  diluted  just  before  it  is  to  be  applied. 
To  make  a  stock  solution  of  soap  emulsion,  dissolve  1  Ib. 
of  hard  soap  in  1  gal.  of  hot  water;  when  the  soap  has 
all  dissolved  and  while  the  solution  is  hot,  add  2  gal. 
of  kerosene;  mix  thoroughly  with  a  force  pump  or  an 
agitator  of  some  kind.  When  to  be  used  for  spraying 
the  interior  of  poultry  houses,  this  stock  solution  should 
be  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  1  gal.  of  the  stock  solution 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       151 

to  4  gal.  of  water.  Crude  petroleum,  benzine,  gasoline, 
or  turpentine  may  be  substituted  for  kerosene  in  this 
formula  also. 

Liquid  lice  killer  is  a  name  frequently  applied  to  an 
insecticide  made  from  kerosene  oil  and  powdered  naph- 
thalene flakes  or  balls,  in  the  proportion  of  2  Ib.  of 
naphthalene  to  1  gal.  of  kerosene.  The  can  containing 
this  solution  should  be  covered  so  that  the  liquid  will 
not  leak  out  of  it,  and  the  solution  should  be  agitated 
frequently  by  shaking.  The  solution  should  be  allowed 
to  remain  in  this  can  about  a  week,  when  it  should  be 
poured  into  another  receptacle,  so  that  another  batch 
can  be  mixed  if  necessary.  If  2  fluid  oz.  of  creoline  or 
of  creosote  are  added  to  the  clear  solution,  the  effective- 
ness of  the  solution  will  be  improved.  The  cans  con- 
taining this  solution  should  be  kept  in  a  temperature 
that  never  goes  below  40°  F.  or  the  naphthalene  will 
go  out  of  solution  and  appear  in  flakes.  The  solution 
should  be  kept  for  about  24  hr.  in  a  warm  place  before 
it  is  used,  so  that  it  will  be  at  about  70°  to  80°  F. 
when  it  is  applied.  This  solution  should  never  be  kept 
close  to  a  fire,  nor  should  any  attempt  be  made  to  heat 
it  over  or  near  a  fire,  as  it  is  inflammable.  This  liquid 
lice  killer  may  be  used  for  either  painting  or  spraying 
the  interior  of  poultry  houses  and  brood  coops. 

Compound  liquid  insecticides  made  up  according  to  the 
following  formulas  may  be  used  with  safety  on  the 
bodies  of  young  chicks:  1  oz.  of  oil  of  sassafras  to  2  or 
3  oz.  of  sweet  oil;  1  oz.  of  oil  of  aniseed  to  3  oz.  of  sweet 
oil. 

Lard  can  also  be  rubbed  on  the  heads  and  throats  of 
young  chicks  for  use  as  an  insecticide. 

Whitewash  is  not  effective  as  an  insecticide  unless  it 
is  mixed  with  carbolic  acid  in  the  proportion  of  1^ 
fluid  oz.  of  carbolic  acid  to  1  gal.  of  whitewash.  Even 
when  containing  carbolic  acid,  however,  it  cannot  be 
depended  on  to  kill  mites.  If  applied  hot,  the  effective- 
ness of  this  mixture  will  be  increased.  Whitewash 
applied  by  itself  will  not  kill  insects  unless  it  happens 


152       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

to  so  completely  cover  them  that  the  creatures  will 
drown  in  it.  Whitewash  can  be  recommended  to  help 
maintain  sanitary  conditions  about  a  poultry  house, 
but  unfortunately  when  it  is  used  it  often  gives  the 
poultryman  a  false  sense  of  security  against  parasites 
and  frequently  causes  him  to  neglect  the  proper  measures 
to  extermkiate  the  insect  enemies  of  his  poultry. 

Fume  Insecticides.— Fume  insecticides  are  produced  by 
burning  various  substances.  Fumes  that  are  extremely 
poisonous  should  not  be  used  for  killing  poultry  para- 
sites, as  there  is  no  necessity  for  their  use,  and  persons, 
animals,  and  the  poultry  may  be  accidentally  exposed 
to  them.  The  following  can  be  recommended  as  effective 
on  parasites,  and  not  necessarily  fatal  to  other  creatures 
if  inhaled  in  small  quantities,  though  they  will  prove 
fatal  to  any  person,  animal,  or  bird  if  inhaled  in  suf- 
ficient quantities: 

Sulphur  fumes  can  be  produced  by  burning  'sulphur. 
Either  lump  sulphur,  which  is  frequently  called  brim- 
stone, sulphur  candles,  or  powdered  sulphur  can  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  powdered  sulphur  will  produce 
fumes  more  rapidly  than  the  lump  sulphur.  The  sulphur 
should  be  placed  in  an  iron  pot  or  pan  to  avoid  fire 
and  should  be  moistened  with  alcohol  or  some  other 
inflammable  liquid  to  make  it  burn  more  freely. 

Tobacco  fumes  may  be  produced  by  burning  any  kind 
of  tobacco.  Such  fumes  are  usually  produced  by  burning 
the  waste  leaves  or  stems  of  the  tobacco  plant,  as  these 
can  be  purchased  cheaply.  The  tobacco  stems  or  leaves 
should  be  placed  in  an  iron  receptacle  of  some  kind 
to  avoid  the  danger  from  fire  and  should  also  be  moist- 
ened with  alcohol  or  some  other  inflammable  liquid 
to  make  it  burn  quickly. 

Creosote  fumes  or  liquid  lice-killer  fumes  are  sometimes 
used  for  killing  the  parasites  on  a  few  fowls  confined  i: 
a  small  space. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       153 


INSTRUMENTS  FOR  APPLYING  INSECTICIDES 
Powder  Guns.— Insect  powders  can  be  applied  by  hand, 

but    they    are    more    effectively    applied    by    the    use    of 

powder  guns.     A  small  pow- 
der gun  is  shown  in  Fig.   1. 

This  will  answer^when  only 

a     few     fowls     are     to     be 

dusted,   but  where  there  are 

a  large   number  of   fowls   to 

dust,    a    larger    powder    gun 

will  be  required.     A  bellows 

powder  gun   is   shown   in  Fig.  2.     With  this   it  will  be 


FIG.  1 


FIG.  2 

possible  to  dust  a  large  number  of  fowls  in  a  short 
time.  This  can  be  used  at  night  by  going  about  among  the 
fowls  and  quietly  inserting  the  point  of  the  gun  among 
the  feathers  of  the  fowls  while  on  the  roost,  and  in  this 
way  dust  them  thoroughly. 

Sprayers.— Liquid  insecticides  can  be  most  effectively 
and  economically  applied  in  spray  form.  Where  there 
is  only  a  small  surface  to  go  over,  a  small  hand-spraying 
outfit  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  3  will  answer. 

Where  a  large  amount 
of  surface  has  to  be 
covered,  a  spraying 
outfit  like  that  shown 
in  Fig.  4  will  be 
found  more  conve- 

pIG    3  nient.  There  are  many 

makes  of  these  com- 
pressed-air sprayers  on  the  market.  Those  with  gal- 
vanized-iron  receptacles  for  the  liquid  will  answer  for 


154       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

spraying  insecticides  but  will  not  prove  satisfactory  for 
spraying  Bordeaux  mixture  on  plants.  By  using  spray 
pumps  to  apply  insecticides,  a  large  quantity  of  liquid 
is  saved  as  compared  with  applying  them  by  means 
of  a  brush,  and  the  insecticide  is 
also  applied  more  effectively. 
When  applied  in  a  fine  spray,  it 
penetrates  into  the  cracks  and 
crevices  in  the  building  and 
forms  an  even  covering  over  the 
flat  surfaces. 


ftfe 


KILLING  OF  PARASITES 

A  constant  watch  must  be  kept 
for    parasites,    because    from    the 
moment    chicks     come     from     the 
shell  they  are  menaced  by  insect 
FIG.  4  vermin.     The   most  practical  way 

of    meeting    the    problem    is    con- 
tinually  to   practice   preventive   measures. 

If  poultry  parasites  are  allowed  to  become  numerous 
they  will  sap  the  vitality  of  the  fowls,  and  although  the 
parasites  themselves  may  be  gotten  rid  of,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  restore  the  physical  condition  of  the  fowls. 
For  application  to  poultry  houses,  liquid  and  fume  in- 
secticides are  most  effective,  but  usually  liquid  insecti- 
cides are  the  more  convenient  to  apply.  Powder 
insecticides  are  ordinarily  effective  on  the  bodies  of 
fowls,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  they  will  not 
kill  all  classes  of  parasites. 

Houses  that  are  maintained  in  a  cleanly  condition, 
well  lighted  with  sunlight,  and  free  from  dampness  will 
never  be  badly  infested  with  parasites,  if  they  are  given 
regular  sprayings  with  some  good  liquid  insecticide. 
Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  sanitary  conditions  as  a 
preventive  measure,  but  sanitary  conditions  combined 
with  regular  spraying  is  most  effective. 

Prevention  of  Infestation  by  Fowls  From  Other  Flocks. 
To  avoid  the  chance  of  carrying  parasites  into  a  house 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       155 

or  to  a  flock  that  is  free  from  parasites,  all  fowls  brought 
in  from  other  flocks  should  be  kept  in  a  sort  of  quaran- 
tine by  themselves  and  specially  treated  for  a  number 
of  days.  The  place  of  quarantine  should  be  a  small 
coop  or  cage  that  is  free  from  parasites.  For  a  period 
of  about  10  da.  some  effective  powder  insecticide 
should  be  frequently  dusted  into  the  feathers  of  such 
fowls.  To  do  this,  the  fowl  should  be  held  in  one  hand 
by  the  shanks,  with  the  head  hanging  down,  and  the 
insect  powder  should  be  worked  into  the  feathers  of 
every  part  of  the  body  and  down  on  to  the  skin  with  the 
fingers  of  the  other  hand.  In  especially  bad  cases,  a 
thorough  washing  should  follow  this  dusting. 

Method  of  Ridding  a  Poultry  House  of  Parasites.— The 
thorough  cleaning  of  a  poultry  house  that  has  become 
badly  infested  with  parasites  is  a  difficult  problem  and 
drastic  measures  are  required.  If  the  building  is  a 
cheap  affair,  like  a  small  coop,  it  is  often  best  to  burn 
it,  but  burning  would  be  too  expensive  in  the  case  of 
a  large  poultry  house.  Before  attempting  to  clean  a 
poultry  house,  all  the  fowls  should  be  removed  to  other 
quarters,  dusted  with  insect  powder  and  kept  by  them-- 
selves  until  the  house  cleaning  is  completed.  To  get  a 
badly  infested  poultry  house  in  good  sanitary  condition 
and  free  from  parasites  will  require  several  days.  The 
following  treatment  will  be  found  effective,  but  in 
exceptionally  bad  cases  a  repetition  of  the  treatment 
may  be  necessary. 

1.  The  house  should  be  thoroughly  fumigated.  After 
removing  the  poultry,  stop  up  every  crack  and  crevice, 
so  that  the  fumes  will  not  escape.  A  number  of  sub- 
stances can  be  used  for  fumigation,  but  sulphur  and 
tobacco  are  the  ones  that  can  be  recommended.  If  either 
of  these  are  used  they  should  be  burned  in  some  metallic 
receptacle  such  as  an  iron  pot  or  kettle,  to  avoid  fire. 
If  these  substances  are  moistened  with  alcohol  or  some 
other  inflammable  material  they  will  burn  more  freely. 
Whatever  material  is  burned  to  produce  the  fumes, 
enough  of  it  should  be  used  so  that  the  interior  of  the 


156       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

building    will    be    filled    with    enough    fumes    to    darken 
it.    The  building  should  be  kept  tightly  closed  for  24  hr. 

2.  The    interior   of   the   house    should   be    dusted   with 
dry   air-slaked   lime.     To   do   this    a  person   should   take 
a  bucket,  bag,   or  pailful   of  the   fine  lime   and  start  at 
the  end  of  the  house  farthest  from  the  door,  and  walk 
slowly   backwards   toward  the   door,    scattering  the   lime 
with  the  right  hand  in  the  same  way  that  seed  is  sown. 
The    lime    should    be    thrown    against    the    ceiling,    side 
walls,   nest  boxes,   roosting  places,   etc.     The  air  should 
be    filled   with    a    cloud    of    lime    dust.     This    dust    will 
settle    gradually    into    every    crack    and    crevice    of    the 
house.    While  the  lime  dust  is  being  scattered,  the  house 
should  be   closed   as   tightly   as   possible.     About  a  half 
bushel  of  lime  dust  will  answer  for  a  poultry  house  20 
ft.   wide   and  40   to   50  ft.    long.     A  thin   cloth   that   the 
operator  can   see  through   should  be  tied  over  the  eyes, 
nose,   and  mouth  to  prevent  the  lime  dust  from  getting 
into    them.     Any    parasites    that   may   have   escaped   the 
fumes   of  the   sulphur  or  tobacco  will   more   than   likely 
be    killed    by    the    lime    dust.       The    house    should    be 
closed  again  for  24  hr.  to  allow  the  lime  dust  to  settle 
thoroughly. 

3.  The  house  should  then  be  brushed  or  swept  clean. 
The  ceiling,  walls,  floor,  and  every  appliance  and  fixture 
inside  the  house  should  be  carefully  brushed.     No  dust 
or  dirt  should  be  left.     The  straw  from  the  nest  boxes, 
and  the   straw   and  dirt  from  the  floor  should  be  taken 
outside,     saturated    with    kerosene,     and    burned.    After 
all  that  will  burn  has  been  burned,  the  rest  should  be 
buried  deep  in  the  ground. 

4.  The     house     should    be     thoroughly     sprayed    both 
inside    and    out    with    one    of    the    liquid    insecticides 
described.      Creosote    and    liquid    lice    killer    are    to    be 
preferred,    in    the   order    named.     The    liquid    insecticide 
applied  at  this  time  should  be  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly. 

5.  A     second     application     of     the     liquid     insecticide 
should  be   made   to   the   interior  of   the   house,    the   nest 
boxes,   and  roosting  poles  before  the  fowls   are   allowed 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       157 

to  return.  This  application  should  be  made  on  the 
morning  of  the  day  the  fowls  are  to  be  returned  to 
the  house;  after  the  liquid  has  dried  sufficiently,  fresh 
straw  should  be  placed  in  the  nest  boxes. 

6.  The  fowls  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  insect 
powder    immediately    before    they    are    allowed    to    return 
to  the  house.     They  should  be  returned  to  the  house  at 
dusk  with  the  powder  in  their  feathers  so  that  they  can 
roost  the  first  night  without  shaking  out  the  powder. 

7.  Sanitary  conditions  must  be  maintained  continually 
in   the  house   and  a   strict   watch   must   be   kept   for   the 
appearance    of   parasites,    both   on    the    fowls    and    about 
the  house.     If  this  is  not  done  the  house  is  likely  to  be 
reinfested  with  parasites.     If  parasites  appear  the  house 
should    be    thoroughly    cleaned    and    sprayed    again.     To 
maintain   cleanliness    the    interior   of   the   buildings,    the 
side    walls,    ceilings,    roosting    places,    nest    boxes,    etc. 
should    be    brushed   frequently    with    a    stiff   broom,    and 
all  filth  should  be  systematically  removed  from  the  floor 
before  it  has  a  chance  to  accumulate  in  any  quantity. 

ANIMALS  DESTRUCTIVE  TO  POULTRY 

Nearly  all  flesh-eating  animals  attack  poultry  when  the 
occasion  offers.  The  animals  that  do  the  most  harm  to 
the  average  poultry  flock  are  wildcats,  raccoons,  opos- 
sums, skunks,  weasels,  minks,  rats,  dogs,  and  cats.  It 
is  said  that  the  tiger  of  India  and  the  smaller  mem- 
bers of  the  feline  family  hunt  the  peafowl  and  the 
pheasant.  Where  foxes  are  found  in  the  neighborhood 
they  will  also  attack  poultry.  The  great  proportion  of 
animals  destructive  to  poultry  hunt  by  night,  and  hence 
if  all  openings  in  the  poultry  houses  are  closed  with 
wire  netting,  practically  all  of  the  animals  most  likely 
to  be  attacked  vould  be  secluded. 

For  the  capture  or  destruction  of  animals  destructive  to 
poultry  the  usual  spring  and  box  traps  are  used. 


158       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

BIRDS   DESTRUCTIVE   TO   POULTRY 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  just  which  birds  are  de- 
structive to  poultry,  because  many  birds  that  live  on 
rodents,  such  as  field  mice,  rats,  etc.,  will  attack  poultry 
when  short  of  other  food.  As  a  general  rule,  however, 
birds  are  not  very  destructive  to  poultry,  because  even 
the  birds  that  attack  domestic  fowls  the  most  frequently 
come  far  from  being  the  worst  enemies  of  poultry.  One 
rat,  for  instance,  will  often  destroy  more  chicks  in 
a  single  night  than  a  pair  of  hawks  will  carry  off  in  a 
month,  and  the  insect  enemies  of  poultry  do  more  dam- 
age than  all  other  agencies  combined. 

Falcons,  hawks,  and  owls  are  the  principal  birds  of 
prey  that  attack  poultry  and  may  be  separated  into 
four  classes,  grading  from  the  least  destructive  to  the 
most  destructive  as  follows: 

The  hawks  and  owls  least  destructive  to  poultry  are: 

1.  The    l?rge    rough-legged    hawk,    the    squirrel    hawk, 
and    the    white-tailed,    Mississippi,    swallow-tailed,    and 
English  kites.     These  birds  will  not  disturb  or  hunt  for 
poultry   so   long  as   they   can   find  a   satisfactory   supply 
of  other  food  to  supply  their  wants.    They  are  generally 
considered   as   being   entirely   beneficial   to  mankind. 

2.  According  to  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher  the  majority  of  hawks 
and  owls  are  usually  beneficial  to  mankind,  but  will  often 
kill  poultry  when  the  occasion  offers.     He  names  the  fol- 
lowing as  belonging  to  this  class:     Marsh  hawk,  Harris's 
hawk,    red-tailed   hawk,    short-tailed    hawk,    white-tailed 
hawk,     red-shouldered     hawk.       Swainson's     hawk,     short- 
winged  hawk,  broad-winged  hawk,  Mexican  black  hawk, 
Mexican    goshawk,    sparrow   hawk,    barn   owl,    long-eared 
and  short-eared  owls,  great  gray  owl,  western  owl,  Rich- 
ardson's   owl,    screech   owl,    snowy    owl,   hawk   owl,    and 
other  smaller  species. 

3.  Fisher    also    classes    the    following    birds    as    doing 
about  as  much  good  by  destroying  other  creatures  as  they 
do    harm    by    destroying    poultry:      Golden    eagle,    bald 
eagle,  pigeon  hawk,  Richardson's  hawk,  falcons,  and  the 
great  horned  owl. 


ENEMIES  AAZ)  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       159 

4.  Birds  that  are  very  destructive  to  poultry  and  not 
of  much  benefit  through  destroying  other  creatures  are: 
Gray  falcon,  duck  hawk,  sharp-shinned  hawk,  Cooper's 
hawk,  and  goshawk. 

The  birds  that  are  classed  as  least  destructive  to 
poultry  subsist  almost  entirely  on  rodents  that  destroy 
field  crops  and  trees,  but  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
they  prefer  this*  kind  of  food  they  cannot  be  trusted 
where  young  chicks  are  being  raised.  Under  starv- 
ing conditions  all  of 
these  birds  will  kill 
the  young  of  chick- 
ens, turkeys,  and  wa- 
ter fowls.  The  spar- 
row hawk,  the  small- 
est and  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  the  above 
birds,  lives  almost 
entirely  on  insects 
and  field  mice,  but 
will,  if  tempted  by 
their  presence,  kill 
young  chicks. 

In  addition  to  the 
above  birds,  ravens, 
blackbirds,  and 
crows  will  destroy  WHITE  MINORCA 

young  poultry.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the  raven  and  the 
crow  to  fly  away  with  chicks  that  are  2  or  3  wk.  old. 
This,  however,  will  occur  only  where  the  poultry  have 
the  range  of  the  farm  near  the  nesting  places  of  these 
birds. 

Well-built  houses  are  a  good  protection  against  birds 
of  prey.  Scarecrows  and  hawk  traps  are  also  sometimes 
effective.  The  presence  of  a  few  guinea  fowls  and  a 
well-trained  dog  will  often  keep  a  fair-sized  farm  free 
from  birds  of  prey.  Neither  guinea  fowls  nor  dogs  will 
do  any  harm  to  birds  of  prey,  but  the  guinea  fowls  will 
make  a  loud  outcry  whenever  birds  of  prey  appear,  and 


160       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

the  dog  that  is  trained  for  the  purpose  will  bark  at  the 
noise  and  will  chase  the  birds  of  prey  away. 


DISEASES 

GENERAL  REMARKS 

A  disease  is  any  derangement  of  a  living  organism,  but 
the  term  ailment  is  usually  applied  to  slight  disorders. 
Though  there  are  many  diseases  of  poultry,  and  some 
serious  ones,  comparatively  few  fowls  are  diseased,  when 
the  large  numbers  of  fowls  in  the  country  are  considered, 
and  poultry  that  is  kept  in  sanitary  quarters  and  has 
proper  food  is  the  least  likely  to  become  diseased. 
Hence,  the  importance  of  preventive  measures. 

Poultry  in  poor  health  will  exhibit  a  dull,  sluggish, 
and  listless  appearance,  which  is  the  strongest  evidence 
of  a  lack  of  vitality,  and  will  go  to  roost  early  and 
remain  there  in  the  morning  until  long  after  the  other 
fowls  are  out  looking  for  food.  When  they  do  leave 
the  roosts  they  will  walk  about  as  if  they  were  not 
strong  enough  to  drag  their  legs  and  feet  after  them. 
Fowls  in  poor  health  will  have  a  bloodless  appearance, 
will  have  an  absence  of  healthy  brightness  in  their 
eyes,  faces,  combs,  and  wattles,  and  will  show  a  general 
lack  of  condition,  which  is  always  accompanied  by  a 
lack  of  appetite  and  a  failure  to  assimilate  properly  the 
food  they  eat.  Hens  in  poor  health  will  lay  but  few 
eggs.  Whenever  fowls  have  had  their  vitality  reduced 
so  that  they  exhibit  the  symptoms  described  they  will  be 
susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  all  kinds  of  diseases. 

There  are  few  symptoms  that  are  of  practical  value 
in  the  diagnosis  of  the  diseases  of  poultry,  for  the  reason 
that  many  symptoms  are  common  to  several  different 
diseases.  A  few  general  symptoms  are,  however,  of 
value.  Fowls  that  are  diseased  become  listless;  they  are 
inclined  to  stay  apart  from  other  fowls,  and  will  stand 
in  out-of-the-way  places  or  beside  a  fence  sunning 
themselves,  their  heads  hanging  and  their  feathers 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY      161 

ruffled.  It  is  natural  for  fowls  to  sun  themselves,  but 
there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  healthy  fowl 
basking  in  the  sun  for  recreation  and  the  sick  fowl 
standing  there  in  the  hope  of  warming  its  body.  Dis- 
ease in  poultry  is  always  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  appe- 
tite and  generally  by  frequent  voidance  of  the  bowels. 

The  temperature  of  normal  fowls  ranges  from  106°  to 
107.5°  F.,  but  the  temperature  of  fowls  is  rarely  taken, 
chilliness  being  usually  accepted  as  an  indication  of 
fever.  The  heart  beat  of  fowls  is  quite  rapid,  varying 
from  110  to  140  per  minute.  The  rapidity,  however,  is  not 
of  so  much  importance  as  the  regularity.  The  normal 
breathing  rate  of  fowls  is  from  50  to  60  respirations  per 
minute.  When  the  respiratory  organs  are  diseased,  the 
respirations  are  quickened.  The  regularity  or  irregular- 
ity of  the  heart  beat  or  of  respiration  will  be  plainly 
heard  if  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  backbone  or  the 
ribs. 

Preventive  measures  are  the  best  treatment  for  poultry 
troubles.  The  fowls  should  be  handled  in  such  a  way 
that  they  will  contract  as  few  diseases  as  possible,  and 
the  slightest  ailment  should  be  treated  before  it  has  a 
chance  to  gain  headway.  This  requires  constant  attention, 
but  this  is  the  only  way  to  success. 

None  but  very  simple  treatment  is  ordinarily  neces- 
sary for  poultry,  and  any  ailment  that  will  not  yield 
readily  to  simple  treatment  is  usually  so  serio'us  that 
even  if  a  fowl  is  enabled  to  recover  from  it,  the  results 
will  not  be  satisfactory,  for  the  vitality  of  the  fowl 
will  be  seriously  impaired.  Hence,  the  practical  poultry- 
man,  except  in  the  case  of  particularly  valuable  fowls, 
usually  kills  any  ailing  fowls  that  do  not  recover  quickly 
from  simple  treatment. 

Medicine  is  most  satisfactorily  administered  to  a 
flock  >f  fowls  by  being  fed  mixed  in  a  warm  or  slightly 
warm  tnrcsh.  Pills  are  usually  the  most  convenient 
form  in  which  to  administer  medicine  to  individual 
fowls.  When  liquids  are  poured  down  a  fowl's  throat 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  strangulation. 


162       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES    OF   TREATMENT 

There  are  a  few  fundamental  principles  of  treatment 
that  it  would  be  well  for  every  poultryman  to  have 
continually  in  his  mind.  Morse's  maxims  cover  this 
ground  so  well  that  they  are  given  here: 

"Clean  out  by  means  of  Epsom  salts,  administered  in 
an  evening  mash,  estimating  one-third  of  a  teaspoonful 
to  each  adult  bird.  When  disease  is  raging  this  may  be 
practiced  with  the  sick  two  or  three  times  a  week  until 
there  is  an  abatement  of  the  outbreak.  Even  the  well 
birds  should  receive  one  such  dose  at  the  beginning 
of  an  outbreak  of  disease.  After  disease  has  swept 
through  a  flock,  until  one  is  certain  that  it  has  been 
entirely  eradicated,  it  is  well  to  give  the  flock  at 
least  one  dose  monthly  during  the  cooler  weather  and 
twice  a  month  during  the  heated  term. 

"Clean  up  the  poultry  houses  by  sprinkling  powdered, 
air-slaked  lime  over  the  runs,  dropping-boards,  and 
floors.  This  should  be  practiced  at  the  time  of  giving 
the  salts,  as  the  lime  will  destroy  the  parasites  that 
are  deposited  in  the  droppings. 

"Clean  the  water  supply  by  adding  to  the  drinking 
water  enough  permanganate  of  potash  to  turn  the  water 
a  claret  red;  that  would  ordinarily  be  as  much  as  you 
can  spread  on  a  silver  lOc.  piece  to  the  gallon  of 
water.  Instead  of  this,  iron  sulphate  may  be  added  in 
the  proportion  of  10  gr.  to  1  gal.  of  water.  Or, 
instead  of  either,  1  teaspoonful  of  strong  carbolic  acid 
(not  crude)  may  be  added  to  1  gal.  of  water.  This  should 
be  practiced  constantly  during  the  prevalence  of  disease. 
Healthy  fowls  not  threatened  with  disease  do  not  need  it. 

"Clean  eggs  by  dipping  them  in  90%  alcohol,  just 
before  placing  them  in  the  incubator.  Instead  of  the 
alcohol,  a  3%  solution  of  some  good  coal-tar  disin- 
fectant may  be  used,  with  this  exception,  that  instead  of 
dipping,  as  in  the  use  of  alcohol,  they  should  be  wiped 
with  the  coal-tar  disinfectant.  The  purpose  of  this  rule 
is  to  remove  from  the  shell  of  the  egg  the  various 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       163 

contaminating  microbes  that  are  deposited  on  the  shell 
in  its  passage  through  the  cloaca. 

"By  all  means  furnish  your  poultry  with  nothing  but 
clean  food.  Moldy  food  is  certain  to  produce  disease 
and  death.  However,  circumstances  sometimes  arise  in 
which  it  appears  impossible  to  avoid  the  use  of  food 
that  has  been  exposed  to  the  conditions  favorable  to  the 
production  of  meld.  In  such  circumstances,  destroy  the 
mold  by  the  application  of  strong  heat.  Do  not  think 
that  this  suggestion  is  a  happy  thought  to  permit  you 
to  lessen  your  expenses  by  buying  seconds,  thirds,  etc. 
in  the  feed  line.  If  you  practice  it,  it  will  be  to  your 
certain  loss.  An  emergency  suggestion  is  never  a  rule 
to  be  regularly  carried  out. 

"Clean  incubators  and  brooders  by  thoroughly  scrub- 
bing them  with  hot  water  and  common  soap.  This 
practice,  alone,  has  helped  to  cut  down  the  cases  of 
white  diarrhea  and  brooder  pneumonia.  Having  once  used 
the  incubators  and  brooders,  remember  that  danger,  dis- 
ease, and  death  lurk  in  them  until  they  are  disinfected. 

"Breed  from  the  youngest  females  consistent  with  the 
needs  of  good  breeding.  Investigators  have  recently 
shown  that  there  are  fewer  cases  of  egg  infection  by 
bacteria  in  the  eggs  that  come  from  virgin  pullets.  A 
study  of  the  anatomy  of  fowls  and  the  physiology  of 
fertilization  makes  plain  at  once  how  all  kinds  of 
bacteria  may  be  introduced  into  the  egg  tube  by  the 
male  bird  in  the  act  of  copulation.  Once  in  the  egg 
tube  it  is  not  difficult  for  the  bacteria  to  eventually 
reach  the  ovary  and  thus  we  may  have  infection  of  eggs 
in  the  ovary  and  in  the  upper  part  of  the  egg  tube." 

SIMPLE  REMEDIES  FOR  POULTRY 

Every  poultryman  should  have  at  hand  a  few  simple 
remedies  that  may  be  safely  used  in  the  treatment  of 
poultry  diseases  and  ailments.  Many  of  the  common 
remedies  kept  in  the  home  for  use  with  children  will 
be  valuable  for  poultry.  The  following  materials  are 
all  convenient  for  the  poultryman  to  have  on  hand: 


"164      ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

Epsom  salts,  called  also  bitter  salt,  is  a  white,  hydrated, 
crystalline  salt  known  chemically  as  magnesium  sulphate. 
It  is  used  as  a  purgative  in  doses  of  %  teaspoonful  to 
each  fowl. 

Castor  oil  is  a  thick  yellowish-white  oil  expressed  from 
the  castor  bean.  It  is  used  as  a  purgative. 

Olive  oil,  called  also  sweet  oil,  is  an  oil  expressed  from 
the  ripe  fruit  of  the  olive.  It  serves  the  purpose  of  butter 
in  some  countries,  but  in  most  parts  of  the  civilized 
world  is  used  chiefly  in  salad  dressings.  Olive  oil  is 
the  most  nearly  perfect  laxative  for  use  with  poultry, 
as  it  is  both  healing  and  nutritious,  thus  possessing  an 
advantage  over  castor  oil.  A  tablespoonful  of  olive  oil 
can  be  safely  administered. 

Camphor  is  a  gumlike,  translucent,  crystalline  com- 
pound with  a  penetrating,  fragrant  odor;  it  is  distilled 
from  the  wood  and  bark  of  the  camphor  tree.  It  may 
be  used  as  a  medicine  for  poultry  to  allay  irritation, 
as  in  colds  and  in  cases  of  slight  diarrhea. 

Copper  sulphate,  called  also  bluestone,  is  a  blue  crystal- 
line substance  that  is  used  as  an  astringent  and  stimu- 
lant, but  not  more  than  from  Y%  to  J4  8r'  should  be 
administered  more  than  once  a  day  to  any  fowl. 

Iron  sulphate,  called  also  copperas,  is  a  green,  crystal- 
line substance  that  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as 
copper  sulphate  and  can  be  administered  in  doses  of 
J4  to  y,  gr. 

Douglas  mixture  is  used  as  a  tonic  for  both  poultry  and 
pigeons,  and  is  made  by  mixing  */2  Ib.  of  iron  sulphate 
with  1  oz.  of  sulphuric  acid  dissolved  in  2  gal.  of  water. 
This  may  be  used  in  the  drinking  water — 2  tablespoon- 
/uls  of  the  mixture  to  each  pint  of  water. 

Table  salt  is  sparingly  used  to  season  mash  foods 
for  poultry.  A  large  quantity  of  salt  will  kill  poultry, 
and  it  is  better  to  give  them  none  than  too  much.  Less 
salt  should  be  used  to  season  food  for  poultry  than  is 
needed  for  human  beings. 

Rhinitis  tablets,  half  strength,  are  an  excellent  remedy 
for  a  cold  in  its  early  stages.  They  are  given  to 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       165 

poultry-  that  have  slight  colds — two  tablets  two  or  three 
times  a  day  for  from  1  to  3  da. 

Homeopathic  remedies  are  used  by  many  poultrymen  for 
their  poultry  with  satisfactory  results.  Such  remedies 
should  be  given  to  poultry  in  quantities  about  as 
recommended  for  children. 

Healing  powders  for  applying  to  sores  of  any  kind  are 
useful  to  have  on  .a  poultry  establishment.  Equal  parts 
of  burnt  alum  and  zinc  oxide;  or  zinc  oxide,  powdered 
magnesia,  and  Venetian  red  are  effective  for  this  pur- 
pose. Burnt  alum  and  the  mixture  of  burnt  alum  and 
zinc  oxide  are  excellent  for  use  on  any  kind  of  sores. 
The  zinc  oxide  and  the  powdered  magnesia  are  very 
healing  and  painless.  The  Venetian  red  is  slightly 
caustic  and  may  be  used  where  a  light  cauterization  is 
needed. 

Hydrogen  peroxide,  a  clear  solution  that  looks  like 
water,  is  useful  for  cleansing  and  disinfecting  ulcers 
or  other  sores  on  poultry. 

Paraffin  oil  is  a  mineral  oil  derived  from  petroleum. 
It  may  be  used  for  relief  in  cases  of  scaly  leg  and 
bumblefoot  and  may  be  applied  to  injuries  of  the  shank, 
but  should  not  be  applied  to  the  skin  of  the  body  or  to 
the  feathers. 

Ointments  are  sometimes  needed  for  irritations  of  the 
skin.  Fresh  zinc-oxide  ointment  is  useful  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  when  it  becomes  rancid  it  is  unfit  for  use.  An 
ointment  made  of  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  rose 
water  mixed  in  a  mortar  with  zinc  oxide  until  the 
whole  assumes  a  thick  mass,  may  also  be  used. 

Iodine,  turpentine,  creoline,  zenoleum,  and  tincture  of 
iron  are  effective  for  destroying  warts  on  poultry. 

Tonics  for  preventing  illness  should  never  be  given  to 
poultry.  Fowls  in  good  health  do  much  better  without 
them.  A  tonic  for  young  or  half-grown  chicks  that  have 
been  weakened  from  any  cause  may  be  given  in  pill 
form  according  to  the  following  formula:  2  dr.  of 
iron  citrate  and  30  gr.  of  quinine  sulphate,  mixed 
into  a  mass  with  sirup  of  gum  arabic  so  as  to  make 


166       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

enough   for  60   pills.     One   of   these  pills   may   be   given 
night   and   morning  for  3   da. 

AILMENTS  AND  TREATMENT 
Colds,  Canker,  Catarrh,  and  Roup.— The  most  common 
ailments  of  fowls  are  colds,  canker,  catarrh,  and  roup. 
All  of  these  troubles  are  likely  to  come  from  exposure 
to  damp  or  cold  at  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  tem- 
perature rises  and  falls  quickly.  Fowls  are  just  as 
likely  to  take  a  cold  in  July  and  Aug.  as  in  midwin- 
ter; they  are  especially  likely  to  take  cold  on  rainy 
days  in  the  summer  when  they  go  to  roost  with  wet 
plumage. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  colds,  canker,  catarrh,  and  roup 
are  often  merely  stages  of  the  same  disease.  A  cold 
may  begin  by  a  slight  discharge  from  the  nostrils, 
accompanied,  perhaps,  by  watering  of  the  eyes.  Canker 
and  catarrh,  which  are  inflammations  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, are  mild  forms  of  diphtheria  in  which  patches  may 
grow  on  the  inside  of  the  throat  and  on  the  tongue  or  at 
the  opening  of  the  windpipe.  These  conditions  follow 
one  another  quickly,  unless  prompt  attention  is  given 
to  the  first  symptoms  of  cold.  The  earlier  forms  of  the 
disease  do  not  seem  to  be  contagious,  but  roup  is 
contagious. 

So  many  remedies  are  used  in  the  treatment  of  these 
diseases  that  it  is  difficult  to  choose  between  them.  The 
best  remedy  of  all,  perhaps,  is  permanganate  of  potash 
administered  in  the  drinking  water.  The  bathing  of 
the  head,  face,  throat,  and  nostrils  with  warm  water 
in  which  some  antiseptic  solution  is  mixed,  and  the 
maintenance  of  perfect  cleanliness  in  their  surroundings 
is  also  advisable.  The  giving  of  internal  remedies  is 
very  unsatisfactory,  and  any  attempt  to  cure  fowls 
afflicted  with  roup  by  any  such  means  is  almost  useless. 
Fowls  badly  affected  with  roup  should  be  promptly 
killed,  their  bodies  buried,  and  the  premises  cleaned 
and  disinfected  with  creosote  or  some  other  similar 
material.  Permanganate  of  potash  should  be  given  to 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       167 

the  rest  of  the  flock  in  their  drinking  water.  A  saturated 
solution  may  be  made  by  placing  1  oz.  of  the  crystals 
of  permanganate  of  potash  in  a  2-oz.  bottle  of  water. 
One  teaspoonful  of  this  saturated  solution  will  be 
sufficient  for  1  gal.  of  drinking  water.  A  warm  mash 
with  a  little  ginger  and  red  pepper  added  as  a  tonic 
may  also  be  given  with  advantage. 

Gapes.— Gapes  is  :a  disease  caused  by  parasites  or  gape 
worms  growing  and  adhering  to  the  inner  lining  of  the 
windpipe.  This  causes  the  chicks  to  gasp  for  breath; 
they  open  their  mouths  wide  and  sneeze  or  cough  in  an 
effort  to  throw  the  parasite  out  of  the  windpipe. 

Among  the  remedies  used  for  this  is  the  feeding  of 
asafetida,  garlic,  or  onion  tops  in  soft  food.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  asafetida  to  a  pint  of  food  will  be 
plenty  of  this.  Garlic  and  onion  tops  as  much  as  they 
will  eat  will  not  injure  them.  Another  means  of  relief 
is  to  introduce  a  feather  down  the  throat  and  into  the 
windpipe,  the  point  of  the  feather  being  dipped  in  sweet 
oil  before  being  introduced  to  the  windpipe. 

Bronchitis.— Bronchitis  is  a  disease  of  the  lining  of 
the  air  tubes.  Fowls  that  take  cold  are  apt  to  have 
irritation  of  the  bronchial  tubes.  When  this  becomes 
aggravated  a  rattling  in  the  throat  is  apparent.  Treat- 
ment is  difficult.  One  drop  of  tincture  of  aconite  may 
be  given  every  hour  until  four  or  five  doses  have  been 
administered.  The  fowl  should  be  fed  on  warm  bread 
and  milk  or  a  warm  mash.  When  the  rattling  in  the 
throat  becomes  aggravated  there  is  but  little  chance  for 
relief.  The  use  of  pills  made  of  iron,  quinine,  and 
strychnine  of  the  same  strength  that  would  be  given  to 
a  lO-yr.-old  child  may  be  administered  one  each 
morning  and  evening. 

Diseases  of  the  Intestines.— Diseases  of  the  intestines 
are  caused  by  improper  feeding,  poorly  kept  or  un- 
sanitary houses,  yards,  and  buildings,  or  long-continued 
exposure  to  damp  and  cold.  These  intestinal  irritations 
cause  diarrhea,  dysentery,  and  like  ailments,  which 
may  bring  about  what  is  known  as  going  light.  The 


168       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

only  safety  against  such  ailments  is  perfect  cleanliness, 
protection  from  cold  and  damp,  and  proper  feeding. 

Fowls  that  are  attacked  with  looseness  of  the  bowels 
or  diarrhea  may  be  treated  by  separating  them  from 
the  rest  of  the  flock,  cutting  off  their  supply  of  green 
food,  and  giving  them  water  to  drink  in  which  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  tincture  of  iron  has  been  mixed  in  each 
quart  of  water,  feeding  them  warm  mash  composed  of 
either  stale  bread,  ground  oats,  and  wheat  bran  equal 
parts,  or  of  ground  oats,  wheat  middlings,  and  wheat 
bran  equal  parts,  either  to  be  moistened  with  hot  milk 
or  hot  water  and  seasoned  with  a  teaspoonful  of  red 
pepper  to  each  quart  of  mash. 

Of  recent  years  the  scourge  of  white  diarrhea  has 
spread  throughout  the  world.  Some  persons  claim  that 
nearly  one-half  of  all  the  little  chicks  hatched  are  lost 
through  this  ailment.  Whether  or  not  so  large  a  per- 
centage of  all  chicks  hatched  die  from  this  disease,  it 
is  a  fact  that  entirely  too  many  die  in  this  way  and 
that  nearly  all  of  the  little  chieks  that  die  of  looseness 
of  the  bowels  have  white  diarrhea.  The  symptoms  of 
white  diarrhea  are  unmistakable.  It  usually  attacks 
little  chicks  within  the  first  week  after  they  come  from 
the  shell.  They  shiver,  hang  down  their  wings,  close 
their  eyes,  and  stand  about  and  peep  in  a  most  painful 
manner,  and  the  discharges  from  their  bowels  is  like 
a  mixture  of  milk  and  lime.  Other  kinds  of  diarrhea 
and  looseness  of  the  bowels  may  be  caused  by  cold, 
exposure  to  damp,  or  eating  food  that  ferments  in  the 
bowels.  Diarrhea  from  these  causes  does  not  make 
little  chicks  nearly  so  sick  as  does  white  diarrhea. 

The  cure  for  all  these  troubles  is  care  and  manage- 
ment. If  little  chicks  are  exposed  to  too  much  heat 
under  the  brooder  or  are  chilled  at  night  under  the 
brooder,  if  they  run  out  in  the  damp  and  wet  and  take 
cold,  or  if  any  of  them  eat  bad  food  they  are  almost 
certain  to  be  afflicted  with  looseness  of  the  bowels.  This 
can  be  cured  or  prevented  by  avoiding  the  troubles  that 
cause  the  ailment  and  by  a  system  of  perfect  sanitation 


" 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY       169 

and  cleanliness  and  the  feeding  of  proper  kinds  of  food. 
Looseness  of  the  bowels  of  this  kind  can  usually  be 
cured  by  feeding  equal  parts  of  bread  crumbs  and  rice 
boiled  in  milk.  If  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in  the 
rice  to  moisten  the  bread,  no  more  moisture  is  needed. 
If  a  little  more  moisture  is  needed  use  hot  milk.  This 
treatment  can  be  safely  given  to  all  little  chicks  troubled 
with  looseness  of  the  bowels.  It  will  not  hurt  the 
chicks  with  white  diarrhea.  There  is,  however,  no 
known  cure  for  little  chicks  that  are  afflicted  with  white 
diarrhea. 

Diseases  of  the  Legs  and  Feet.— Leg  weakness,  rheuma- 
tism, and  gout  are  troubles  that  cause  lameness  in  fowls. 
Lameness  may  also  come  from  corns  or  bumblefoot. 
Rheumatism  and  gout  are  often  called  leg  weakness, 
although  the  leg  weakness  may  be  due  to  any  one  of  a 
number  of  causes,  as  for  instance  too  high  a  temperature 
in  the  brooder,  to  the  chicks  being  kept  too  long  on 
board  floors,  to  insufficient  nutrition,  or  to  a  lack  of 
bone-forming  material  in  the  food.  In  most  cases  die- 
tetic and  hygienic  treatment  will  prove  sufficient. 

Rheumatism  and  gout  are  kindred  diseases  caused  by 
the  fowls  being  exposed  to  dampness  and  by  being  shut 
up  in  badly  ventilated  houses.  In  fact,  nine-tenths  of 
all  poultry  troubles  come  from  damp  and  unsanitary 
houses;  if  the  houses  were  kept  perfectly  clean,  dry, 
and  free  from  insects,  fowls  would  have  but  few  ail- 
ments. There  is  no  cure  for  rheumatism  and  gout,  and 
scarcely  any  relief. 

Scaly  leg  is  a  disease  of  the  shanks  caused  by  little 
mites  that  come  from  damp  and  filthy  conditions.  The 
mites  get  under  the  scales  on  the  shanks  and  toes  and 
cause  swellings  on  these  parts.  Scaly  leg  may  be 
quickly  cured  if  treated  at  the  beginning,  but  it  is  hard 
to  eradicate  at  an  advanced  stage.  It  may  be  treated 
by  rubbing  the  shanks  thoroughly  each  day  with  an 
application  of  lard  and  kerosene  until  the  growths  are 
cleaned  off.  The  most  effective  way  of  dealing  with  the 
trouble  is  to  sell  off  the  afflicted  fowls  for  market 


170       ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

poultry  and  put  the  houses  and  surroundings  in  a 
sanitary  condition. 

Bumblefoot  is  an  ulcer  on  the  bottom  of  the  foot  of 
a  fowl  and  is  usually  caused  by  a  bruise.  It  may  be 
treated  by  applying  some  kind  of  ointment  or  healing 
salve  or  by  cauterizing  with  strong  iodine  or  a  saturated 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potash. 

Chicken  Pox.— Chicken  pox  is  an  ailment  that  comes 
usually  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  The  first  appearance  is 
noticed  from  the  little  black  specks  growing  on  the  face 
and  eyes,  usually  of  young  fowls.  These  continue  to 
grow  until  they  close  the  eyes  completely  and  the  fowls 
die  of  starvation,  because  they  cannot  see  to  eat.  This 
ailment  is  the  most  prevalent  in  warm  or  tropical  cli- 
mates, where  it  is  called  sorehead.  Frequently  the 
entire  head  becomes  raw,  and  when  in  this  condition 
the  fowl  is  so  afflicted  with  flies,  bugs,  and  mosquitoes 
that  it  is  almost  eaten  up.  The  only  treatment  to  be 
relied  on  is  cleanliness  and  the  bathing  of  the  afflicted 
parts  with. a  5%  or  a  10%  solution  of  creoline  in  water. 

Bad  Habits. — Egg  eating  and  picking  of  sore  places  on 
the  bodies  of  one  another  are  bad  habits  acquired  by 
fowls  kept  in  confinement  with  nothing  to  do.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  remedy  for  these  bad  habits 
when  they  are  once  acquired.  In  some  instances  they 
may  be  checked  by  transferring  the  fowls  from  place 
to  place  or  by  giving  them  perfect  freedom. 


POULTRY  JUDGING  171 

POULTRY  JUDGING 


METHODS    OF    JUDGING 

In  America  there  are  three  methods  of  judging: 
(1)  By  the  official'  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association:  (2)  by  the  decimal  score  card;  and  (3)  by 
comparison. 

The  practice  of  judging  by  score  card  was  begun  and 
has  continued  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  ever 
since  the  compilation  of  the  first  Standard  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association.  A  few  shows  that  are 
held  during  Nov.  and  a  large  number  that  are  held 
between  Dec.  and  April  are  judged  by  the  score-card 
method.  The  shows  that  are  held  from  April  to  Nov. 
are  judged  by  comparison.  The  score-card  method  of 
judging  has  been  recognized  by  the  American  Poultry 
Association  since  its  origin. 

The  decimal  score  card  was  introduced  by  I.  K.  Felch 
in  1890,  and  since  that  time  both  the  official  and  the 
decimal  score  cards  have  been  used.  Although  the 
decimal  score  card  has  never  been  recognized  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association,  its  use  continues  and 
its  advocates  are  increasing  in  number. 

Although  comparison  judging  has  been  used  for  so 
long  in  the  placing  of  awards,  in  fact,  much  longer  than 
the  score-card  method,  it  did  not  have  the  sanction  of 
the  American  Poultry  Association  until  1904.  Judging  by 
comparison  is  practiced  each  year  at  all  shows  held 
prior  to  Nov.  1  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Nearly  all  the  larger  exhibitions  are  judged 
under  the  comparison  system. 

The  advantages  of  each  method  of  judging  depend  on 
the  ability  of  the  judges  accurately  to  determine  how 
nearly  the  fowls  under  consideration  approach  the  re- 
quirements of  the  standard.  The  use  of  the  score  card  is 
considered  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  the  amateur, 


OFFICIAL  SCORE  CARD  OF  THE 

Fancier's  Poultry  Association 


DATE. 


_VARIETY_ 


ADDRESS. 


.BAND  NO. 
_  WEICHT_ 


Shape  Color 


Symmetry. 

Weight  or  Size 

Condition 

Head  and  Beak 

Eyes , 

Comb 

Wattles  &  Ear  Lobes 

Neck 

Wings 

Back 

Tail 

Breast 


Body  and  Fluff 

Legs  and  Toes 

*Hardness  of  Feather 
fCrest  and  Beard  — 


•Applies  to  Games  and  Game  Banta 
tApplies  to  Crested  Breeds 


Judge 

_  Secretary 


FlG.    1 


172 


POULTRY  JUDGING  173 

who  gains  knowledge  by  a  careful  study  of  his  own 
fowls  in  comparing  them  with  the  decisions  of  the 
judge,  which  are  shown  in  detail  on  the  cards,  which 
go  to  the  exhibitors.  Comparison  judging,  however,  is 
equally  beneficial,  provided  the  exhibitor  is  present  and 
can  understand  the  reasons  for  the  various  awards  and 
rejections.  Comparison  judging  becomes  of  more  gen- 
eral use  in  neighborhoods  where  poultry  shows  have 
been  held  annually  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 
Score-card  judging  is  in  more  common  use  in  localities 
where  the  practice  of  holding  poultry  shows  is  in  its 
infancy.  More  shows  are  judged  by  score  cards  through- 
out the  United  States  and  Canada  than  are  judged  by 
comparison.  Comparison  judging  is  really  an  advanced 
system  of  judging  that  can  be  employed  by  those  who 
are  familiar  with  the  distinctions  considered  of  the 
greatest  importance. 


SCORE  CARDS 

A  copy  of  the  official  score  card  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  only 
change  neded  to  make  this  score  card  local  is  to  print  at 
the  top  in  place  of  "Fancier's  Poultry  Association,"  the 
name  of  the  local  association  using  it.  This  card  gives 
a  list  of  the  parts  of  a  fowl  in  respect  to  which  it  is 
to  be  scored,  and  a  space  is  provided  for  noting  the 
score  for  each  part.  A  definite  number  of  points  is 
assigned  to  each  part,  the  total  number  of  points  indi- 
cating perfection  in  all  parts  being  100.  The  figures 
scored  after  each  part  indicate  the  degree  to  which  it 
approaches  perfection  according  to  standard  require- 
ments, and  the  total  score  shows  how  closely  a  fowl  ap- 
proaches perfection  in  all  respects,  which  is  100  points. 
This  method  is  a  mathematical  analysis  of  the  defects 
found  in  a  fowl,  and  enables  a  judge  to  make  a  discount 
for  each. 

The  score  card  was  designed  for  judging  poultry  at 
exhibitions.  The  object  was  not  only  to  decide  the 


THE  DECIMAL  SCORE  CARD 


Breed. 
Sex_ 


.Entry  No._ 


Coop  No Ring  No Weight 


WEIGHT  or  SIZE 


COMB,  or  CREST 


HEAD  AND  EYE" 
ADJUNCTS 


NECK 


BODY  and       Shape 
FLUFF  Color 


r 


lillfl 


.judge 


FIG.  2 


174 


POULTRY  JUDGING  175 

awards,  giving  the  highest  scores  and  the  best  prizes  to 
the  fowls  least  defective,  but  to  give  every  fowl  exhib- 
ited a  rating  in  terms  of  the  standard  requirements  and 
in  comparison  with  competing  fowls  of  the  same  sex  and 
variety. 

This  system  can  be  used  also  by  fanciers  and  breeders 
as  a  guide  in  computing  values  in  sale  fowls,  and  in 
selecting  breedhig  and  exhibition  fowls. 

A  copy  of  the  decimal  score  card  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
This  card  provides  ten  divisions  for  the  features  in 
respect  to  which  a  fowl  is  to  be  scored,  and  the  perfect 
score  for  each  feature  is  10  points.  Provision  is  made 
where  necessary  for  scoring  features  separately  in  re- 
spect to  shape  and  color.  The  decimal  score  card  differs 
materially  from  the  official  score  card,  which  provides 
for  scoring  more  features,  and  these  are  valued  differ- 
ently for  different  breeds. 

The  arguments  for  or  the  objections  against  the  deci- 
mal system  that  have  arisen  have  been  directed  to  the 
fact  that  no  two  breeds  can  be  valued  the  same.  Those 
who  favor  the  decimal  system  claim  that  a  perfect  back 
in  a  Plymouth  Rock  is  of  equal  value  to  the  back  of  a 
Partridge  Cochin  or  a  Game  Bantam,  and  that  neither 
should  have  the  advantage  over  the  other  in  the  gen- 
eral division  of  points;  that  backs  for  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Cochins,  or  Bantams  can  be  valued  at  10  points  as  well 
as  to  have  the  back  of  each  fowl  estimated  at  a  different 
percentage.  There  is  evidence  of  value  in  the  decimal 
method  of  calculation  from  the  fact  that  the  monetary 
system  of  several  countries  and  the  metric  system  are 
based  on  the  decimal  system.  When  matters  of  such 
vast  importance  can  be  conducted  best  under  a  decimal 
system,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  conceding  that 
the  same  system  will  apply  equally  well  in  poultry 
judging.  The  adoption  of  the  official  score  card  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association  seems  to  have  been 
based  more  on  the  preference  of  the  members  of 
that  organization  than  on  a  consideration  of  its  relative 
convenience. 


0 
B 


z 

0 

CO 


o&  a 


0 
0 


1 
:>  J! 


f 


FIG.  3 


176 


POULTRY  JUDGING  177 

A  convenient  comparison-judging  score  card  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3.  Any  number  of  lines  needed  to  complete 
an  entry  may  be  added  to  this  card.  The  comparison 
method  of  judging  consists  in  a  careful  examination  of 
every  section  of  the  fowl,  and  a  determination  of  the 
quality  by  this  means,  the  final  placing  of  awards  being 
decided  without  numerical  estimates.  In  fact,  to  judge 
by  comparison  is  to  select  the  best,  by  applying,  by 
means  of  sight  estimates,  the  criteria  of  perfection  es- 
tablished by  the  Standard. 

Comparison  judging  gives  due  credit  to  superior 
value  in  individual  fowls.  No  other  system  gives 
consideration  to  unusual  quality  as  equitably  as  given 
under  the  comparison  system. 

When  properly  applied,  comparison  judging  can  be 
made  more  equitable  in  placing  awards  than  any  other 
system;  for  selecting  the  best  fowls  in  the  classes,  no 
system  is  superior  to  it.  The  main  objection,  and,  in 
fact,  the  only  real  objection  that  can  be  made  .against 
it,  is  that  no  record  is  made,  nor  is  there  any  reason 
apparent  to  the  absent  exhibitor  for  the  award  of  prizes. 
A  record  by  scores  and  the  results  published  conveys  a 
numerical  value  for  individual  fowls  to  the  mind  of  the 
absentee.  In  the  score  card  he  has  comparative  nu- 
merical values  of  the  fowls  that  were  outside  the  list  of 
awards. 


JUDGING    OF    FARM    FLOCKS    AT    FAIRS 
AND  SHOWS 

M.  C.  Kilpatrick,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Penn- 
sylvania State  College,  has  shown  marked  interest  in 
having  farmers  show  their  poultry  at  county  fairs.  He 
suggests  that  the  flock  to  be  exhibited  shall  consist 
of  6  females  and  1  male,  that  each  flock  be  placed  in  a 
small  coop  or  runway,  where  they  can  be  readily  viewed, 
and  that  the  accompanying  score  card  shall  be  used  to 
judge  them. 


178  POULTRY  JUDGING 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  FARM  FLOCK 

GENERAL-PURPOSE   TYPE 

PERFECT  JUDGE'S 
SCORE     SCORE 
Head:       Small,     with     small     combs     and 

wattles;  beak,  short,  stiff,  and  strong; 

bright,     full     eye;      face,     comb     and 

wattles    bright    in    color    and    of    fine 

texture    5  

Neck:      Rather    short,    neat,    tapering    to 

head    2          

Wings:     Small   and  neat   2  

Back:     Of  good  length,  rather  broad 6          

Breast:  Large,  full,  rounding,  well  de- 
veloped    6  

Body:      Very    deep,    broad    and    compact, 

well    fleshed;    keel    straight    and    long, 

well    rounded    out    with    flesh;    should 

resemble   a  parallelogram  in  shape....      30  

Skin:     Smooth  and  of  fine  texture;  yellow 

skin  preferred    4  

Flesh:      Firm,    evenly    distributed;    deep, 

especially  in  regions  of  desirable  cuts; 

should  give  indication  of  tendency  to 

fatten    easily    10          

Shanks:     Short,  stiff,   and  clean 3 

Plumage:  Abundant,  bright,  and  well 

kept;  free  from  dark  pin  feathers 2  

Disposition:     Docile;   quiet  but  active....        2          

Vitality:  Strong;  fowls  should  give  evi- 
dence of  perfect  health,  freedom  from 
vermin,  etc.,  and  must  be  neat  and 
clean  in  appearance  10  

Size:  Females  shall  weigh  not  less  than 

5  Ib.  each,  males  not  less  than  7  Ib...  8  

Uniformity:  Flock  to  consist  of  6  females 
and  1  male;  females  as  uniform  as 
possible  in  type,  size,  color  of 
plumage,  etc.;  male,  same  color  as 
females  10  •  • 

Disqualification:  Any  evidence  of  dis- 
ease, low  vitality,  scaly  leg  destroy- 
ing the  natural  color  of  the  shank, 
roach  back,  crooked  toe,  or  wry  tail. 
Fowls  badly  infested  with  lice  shall 
also  be  disqualified. 


POULTRY  JUDGING  179 

EGG  TrpE 

PERFECT  JUDGE'S 
SCORE     SCORE 

Head:  Bright  in  color,  of  moderate  size, 
short,  broad,  and  neat;  beak,  short, 
stiff,  and  strong;  eye,  bright,  fully 
filling  the  socket,  giving  an  impres- 
sion of  alertness  and  brightness; 
comb  well  developed,  medium  to  large 
in  size,  full  of  blood,  and  of  fine  tex- 
ture   8  

Neck:     Of  medium  length,  neat  and  trim       3  

Back:     Long  and  reasonably  broad 8  

Body:  Compact,  broad,  and  deep,  espe- 
cially in  abdomen  and  fluff,  giving 
plenty  of  room  for  vital  organs;  well 
rounded  out  with  flesh;  plump,  yet 
not  fat;  go9d  width  between  pelvic 
bones,  \l/2  in.  or  better,  with  good 
distance  between  rear  joint  of  keel 
bone  and  pelvic  arch;  wings  of  me- 
dium size  20  

Breast:  Shallower  than  rear,  present- 
ing a  wedge  shape  when  viewed  from 
above.  Should  be  rounded,  of  medium 
size,  giving  good  lung  capacity  8  

Shanks  and  toes:  Shanks,  stocky,  not 
rangy;  of  medium  length.  The  fowl 
should  stand  up  stiff  and  straight, 
v/ith  body  well  supported  on  the  tops 
of  the  legs,  the  fowl  standing  firmly 
on  the  toes.  Shanks  to  have  full, 
highly  colored  skin,  loose  around  the 
shank;  should  carry  some  flesh.  Toe- 
nails,  short  and  straight 5  

Tail:     Full    and    flowing,    not    pinched    or 

stinted;  a  tendency  to  be  carried  high        2  

Plumage:        Glossy,      flowing,      abundant, 

bright,    and   well    kept 2 

Disposition:  Always  busy,  singing  con- 
stantly, docile,  elusive.  The  male 
should  be  courteous  to  the  hens  and 
exhibit  great  courage  2 

Flesh:       Hard,     firm,     muscular,     showing 

little  tendency  to  lay  on  fat 5  

Vitality:  Strong,  as  evidenced  by  gen- 
eral appearance  and  condition  of  the 
fowl,  giving  evidence  of  perfect  health, 
freedom  from  lice,  etc.;  must  be  neat 
and  clean  in  appearance 12 


180        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

PERFECT  JUDGE'S 
SCORE     SCORE 

Size:  Of  medium  size,  female  ranging 
from  3l/2  to  6  Ib. ;  male,  from  Al/2 
to  7  Ib 5  

Eggs:  Eggs  to  be  of  good  size,  weighing 
not  less  than  26  oz.  per  doz. ;  must  be 
uniform  in  shape,  size,  and  color; 
white  eggs  to  have  the  preference 
over  brown  or  tinted  eggs,  other  things 
being  equal;  eggs  not  to  be  consid- 
ered unless  all  flocks  are  laying 
during  the  competition  10  • 

Uniformity:  Flock  is  to  consist  of  6 
females  and  1  male;  females  should  be 
as  nearly  alike  as  possible  in  type, 
size,  plumage,  etc.;  male  should  be 
of  same  color  as  females 10  •  •  ••  • 

Disqualification:  Any  evidence  of  dis- 
ease or  low  vitality,  scaly  leg,  de- 
stroying the  natural  color  of  the 
shank,  roach  back,  or  wry  tail.  Fowls 
badly  infested  with  lice  shall  also  be 
disqualified. 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND 
ASSOCIATIONS 


BEGINNING    OF   POULTRY   SHOWS 

The  first  poultry  exhibition  is  thought  to  have  been 
the  one  held  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London, 
England,  in  1846;  the  first  poultry  show  held  in  Birming- 
ham, England,  was  in  1849.  The  first  poultry  exhibition 
held  in  America  is  accredited  to  Boston  in  1849.  The 
first  American  poultry  show  to  attract  world-wide  at- 
tention was  held  in  the  American  Museum,  New  York 
City,  in  February,  1854,  under  the  management  of  P.  T. 
Barnum.  The  second  show  was  held  a  year  later  at 
the  same  place.  This  show  was  really  the  beginning  of 
live  interest  in  the  breeding  of  fowls  for  exhibition  in 
America. 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        18 1 

From  1860  to  1865,  but  little  interest  was  taken  in 
poultry  exhibitions  in  America.  From  then  to  the 
present  time  they  have  increased  so  fast  as  to  surprise 
the  world.  During  the  show  season  of  1911  and  1912 
more  than  700  poultry  exhibitions  were  held  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  more  than  200  in 
England. 

The  great  shows  of  England  are  the  Dairy,  the  Bir- 
mingham, and  the  Crystal  Palace  shows.  These  three  are 
held  usually  between  Oct.  15  and  Nov.  20.  The  Crystal 
Palace  show  of  London,  England,  has  for  many  years 
been  considered  the  greatest  of  poultry  shows,  but 
within  the  last  few  years  the  New  York  and  Boston 
shows  have  come  to  be  considered  equal  in  importance 
to  the  Crystal  Palace  exhibition. 


POULTRY-SHOW    RULES 

Non-members  of  the  American  Poultry  Association 
must  make  application  in  writing  to  the  secretary,  S.  T. 
Campbell,  Mansfield,  Ohio,  for  permission  to  use  the 
copyrighted  rules  for  holding  shows,  at  least  30  da.  before 
the  time  for  printing  the  premium  list.  Application 
for  permission  to  use  the  rules  is  considered  to  be  a 
guarantee  that  the  rules  will  be  strictly  observed. 

GENERAL   RULES 
I.  Entries 

1.  Breeders,    fanciers,    sportsmen,    and    amateui       are 
most  cordially   invited  to  compete  for  premiums  of  this 
Association. 

2.  Entries  will  positively  close   on   [date],  but  should 
be  sent  as  long  before  that  date  as  possible.     This  rule 
will  be  strictly  adhered  to. 

3.  The    building    will    be    open    for    the    reception    of 
specimens    at    8    A.    M.,    Monday,    [date],    and    those    not 
received  by   10  A.    M.,   Tuesday    [date],  will  be  debarred 
from    competition. 


182        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

4.  The    entry    fee    for    poultry    in    the    open    class    is 
$1  per  bird;  pens,  $2 — 4  females,   1  male;  pet  stock,  50c. 

5.  Birds   entered   in  the  open   classes   cannot   compete 
in   the   pens. 

6.  There   must   be   three    (3)    entries   in   each   and   all 
the    classes    of    poultry    or    first    prize    money    will    be 
withheld.     Where   there   are    less    than   three    entries    in 
a  class,  second  prize  money  will  be  paid  for  first  prize 
winner. 

7.  Individual    season    tickets    will    be    issued   free    of 
charge  to  all  exhibitors  whose  entry  fee  amounts  to  $2. 
Any   exhibitor  whose   entry   fee   does   not   amount  to  $2 
can  secure  ticket  by  paying  the  difference. 

8.  No   specimens   will   be   allowed  in   the   hall  except 
those  which  have  been  duly  entered  in  the  books  of  the 
Association,  and  the  entry  fee  and  express  charges  paid. 

II.    Transportation 

1.  Shipping  tags  will  be  sent  to  each  exhibitor,  which 
must  have  the  sender's  name  and  address  legibly  writ- 
ten thereon,   and  the   name  of  the  express  company  for 
their  return  delivery.    If  from  accident  the  shipping  tags 
do  not  arrive  in  time,   send  exhibits  without  them,  and 
the  secretary  will  make  duplicates. 

2.  Unhealthy    specimens    will    not    be    exhibited,    but 
will  be  returned  to  the  owners  at  their  expense. 

3.  When  more  than  one  specimen  is  sent  in  the  coop, 
each    entry    must    be    properly    divided    and    separately 
labeled. 

4.  All  specimens  sent  will  be  properly  cared  for  and 
returned  at  the  close  of  the  exhibition.     It  will  therefore 
be  unnecessary  for  the  owners  to  accompany  them. 

III.    Care   and   Condition 

1.  All  specimens  shall  be  exhibited  in  their  natural 
condition,  with  the  exception  of  games  and  game  ban- 
tams. Any  violation  of  this  rule  shall  exclude  the 
specimen  from  competing  and  cause  the  withholding  of 
all  premiums  awarded  the  owner  of  such  birds. 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        183 

2.  The   association   will   be   pleased   to  undertake   the 
sale    of    specimens    for    the    exhibitor,    free    of    charge, 
selling   price    to    be    stated    on    entry    blank.     All    sales 
must  be  reported  at  the  office  as  soon  as  made. 

3.  During    the    exhibition,    no    specimens    can    be    re- 
moved   except    by    order    of    the    secretary.      Any    fowl 
showing  disease  will  be  removed  and  cared  for. 

4.  All    signs    or    advertising   matter    on   coops   must   be 
neat    and     attractive     and    meet    the    approval     of    the 
secretary. 

IV.  Awarding  Prizes 

1.  The   judges   shall   be   selected   for  their   known   fa- 
miliarity with  the  classes  on  which  they  are  invited  to 
award  premiums. 

2.  The  reports  of  the  judges  shall  be  made  in  writing, 
upon  blanks  provided  by  the  secretary,  and  will  be  final, 
after  having  been  approved  by  the  secretary  and  board 
of  directors. 

3.  Immediately   after  the   awards   of  the  judges  have 
been   supervised   and   approved,   a   card   stating  the  pre- 
mium will  be  placed  upon  each  winning  coop,  where  it 
is  to  remain  until  the  close  of  the  show. 

4.  No  one  will  be  allowed  in  the  aisles  while  judging 
is  going  on,  except  the  board  of  directors  and  the  em- 
ployes of  the  association. 

5.  A  display  shall  consist  of  at  least  ten  entries  and 
will    be    decided    thus:      First    prize    to    count   6   points; 
second,    4;    third,    3;    fourth,    2;    fifth,    1.      Pens,    points 
double.     In  case  of  a  tie,  the  largest  entry  will  decide. 

6.  Prizes    in    cash,    special    prizes,    ribbons,    etc.,    for 
all  exhibits,  including  pens,  will  be  awarded.     Blue  rib- 
bon   for    first    prize,    red    for    second,    yellow    for    third, 
fourth,   and  fifth.     Lost   prize  ribbons  will   be  duplicated 
at  15c.  each. 


184        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

MEMBERSHIP    IN    AMERICAN    POULTRY 
ASSOCIATION 

Membership  in  the  American  Poultry  Association  is 
governed  by  the  following  rules  taken  from  the  consti- 
tution of  that  organization: 

ARTICLE   III 

Membership 

SECTION  1.  The  members  of  this  association  shall  con- 
sist of  five  classes,  as  follows: 

(a)  Life. — Individual  membership  shall  be  for  life, 
for  which  a  fee  of  $10,  payable  with  the  application, 
shall  be  charged.  The  applicant  shall  be  eligible  to  all 
rights  and  privileges  of  membership  immediately  fol- 
lowing his  election  by  the  executive  board. 

(&)  Associate. — Any  poultry  association  or  society,  or- 
ganized for  the  purpose  of  holding  annual  poultry  ex- 
hibitions, may  become  an  associate  member  of  this 
association  on  payment  of  a  fee  of  $10,  such  member- 
ship to  be  approved  by  the  executive  board,  and  shall 
be  entitled  to  one  representative,  having  one  vote,  at 
meetings  of  this  association.  Such  associations  or  so- 
cieties, on  becoming  associate  members  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association,  shall  be  amenable  to  its  rules  and 
regulations  governing  poultry  associations  and  shows. 

(c)  Clubs. — Any    specialty    club,    organized    in    the    in- 
terest  of  any   breed   or  variety   of  standard-bred   poultry, 
may   become   a   member   of   this   association   on   payment 
of  a  fee  of  $10,  such  membership  to  be  approved  by  the 
executive  board,  and  shall  be  entitled  to  one  representa- 
tive, having  one  vote,  at  meetings  of  this  association. 

(d)  Society. — Any  society,  organized  in  the  interest  of 
poultry   culture,   may  become   a  member  of  this   associa- 
tion on  payment  of  a  fee  of,  $10,  such  membership  to  be 
approved  by  the   executive  board,   and  shall  be  entitled 
to   one   representative,   having   one   vote,   at   meetings   of 
this  association. 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        185 

(e)  Branch.— Any  state  or  province,  or  any  district 
composed  of  any  combination  of  adjoining  states  or 
provinces,  not  exceeding  six  in  number,  may  be  or- 
ganized into  one  branch  association,  subject  to  the 
constitution  and  by-laws  and  the  rules  and  regulations 
of  the  American  Poultry  Association.  The  membership 
of  branch  associations  shall  be  made  up  of  life  asso- 
ciate or  society  members  of  the  American  Poultry  Asso- 
ciation. Each  branch  association,  through  its  properly 
accredited  representative,  who  must  be  a  member  of  the 
branch  association,  shall  be  entitled  to  one  vote  at 
meetings  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  for  each 
five  of  its  members  who  are  not  present  at  roll  call. 

SEC.  2.  All  applications  for  membership  of  classes 
(a),  (b),  (c),  and  (d)  must  be  made  in  writing;  be 
addressed  to  the  secretary  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association;  bear  the  indorsement  of  two  members  of 
the  association,  and  receive  a  majority  vote  of  the  ex- 
ecutive board,  either  by  mail  or  in  regular  or  special 
session.  Should  the  vote  on  new  members  be  by  mail, 
the  secretary  shall  duly  advise  all  members  of  the 
executive  board  in  form  and  manner  required  by  said 
board,  and  in  the  event  that  any  member  of  the 
executive  board,  within  20  da.,  objects  to  an  applicant 
being  admitted  to  membership,  such  application  shall  be 
acted  upon  by  the  executive  board  in  regular  or  special 
session.  No  applications  shall  be  approved  unless  the 
prescribed  membership  fee  has  been  paid.  Should  the 
applicant  fail  of  approval  the  fee  shall  be  returned.  An 
application  for  branch  membership  must  state,  over  the 
signature  of  its  secretary,  the  number  of  names  of  its 
members  who  are  life  members  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association. 

SEC.  3.  The  credentials  of  representatives  of  branch 
associations  and  of  associate,  club,  and  society  member- 
ship, must  reach  the  secretary's  hands  before  the  open- 
ing roll  call  of  meetings  attended  by  such  representa- 
tives, otherwise  they  shall  not  be  entitled  to  take  part 
in  the  proceedings  as  representatives. 


186        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

SEC.  4.  The  representative  of  any  club  or  society 
must  show  by  his  credentials  that  said  club  or  society 
has  held  a  regularly  called  meeting,  as  provided  for  by 
its  constitution  and  by-laws,  within  1  yr.  from  the 
date  of  the  meeting  of  this  association,  in  which  he 
seeks  to  take  part,  and  a  certified  copy  of  said  consti- 
tution and  by-laws  must  have  been  filed  with  the 
secretary  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  at  the 
time  of  the  filing  of  the  application  for  membership. 

SEC.  5.  In  advance  of  each  annual  meeting  the  secre- 
tary shall  drop  from  the  roll  call  all  members  of  the 
association  who  are  2  yr.  in  arrears  in  the  payment  of 
their  dues. 

SEC.  6.  Fifty  per  cent,  of  each  life,  associate,  or  so- 
ciety membership  fee,  coming  to  the  secretary  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association  through  any  branch  asso- 
ciation, for  membership  in  the  American  Poultry  Asso- 
ciation, shall,  upon  the  election  of  the  applicant,  be  re- 
turned to  the  branch  from  which  it  came. 


REVISION    OF    THE    AMERICAN    STAND- 
ARD  OF  PERFECTION 

Revision  of  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection  is 
governed  by  the  following  extract  from  the  constitution 
of  the  American  Poultry  Association: 

ARTICLE  X 

Revision  of  Standard 

SECTION  1.  A  general  revision  of  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection  shall  take  place  once  in  5  yr. 
and  not  oftener. 

SEC.  2.  No  changes  shall  be  made  in  any  part  of  the 
Standard  of  Perfection  unless  written  notice,  specify- 
ing word  for  word  the  proposed  change  or  changes,  shall 
have  been  filed  with  the  secretary  at  least  90  da. 
before  the  annual  meeting  at  which  the  changes  are  to 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        187 

be  acted  upon,  in  which  case  the  secretary,  in  an- 
nouncing the  next  annual  meeting,  shall  notify  all  mem- 
bers of  the  proposed  change  or  changes,  specifying  the 
same,  word  for  word.  The  provision  of  this  section  shall 
not  apply  to  changes  made  at  the  meeting  at  which 
a  general  revision  shall  take  place. 

SEC.  3.  New  breeds  or  varieties  shall  be  admissible 
to  the  Standard  of  Perfection  only  at  the  time  of  general 
revision.  Corrections  may  be  made  and  omissions  sup- 
plied by  a  majority  vote  at  any  annual  meeting  of  the 
association,  on  recommendation  of  the  standing  commit- 
tee on  revision;  provided,  written  notice,  specifying 
word  for  word  the  proposed  corrections  or  omissions, 
shall  have  been  filed  with  the  secretary  90  da.  before 
the  date  of  the  annual  meeting  at  which  same  is  to  be 
considered,  and  that  a  printed  notice  specifying  such 
corrections  shall  have  been  mailed  by  him  to  each 
member  of  the  association  at  least  60  da.  before  the 
date  of  said  annual  meeting. 


ADMISSION    OF   NEW    BREEDS   AND   VA- 
RIETIES TO  AMERICAN  STANDARD 
OF    PERFECTION 

New  breeds  and  varieties  are  admitted  to  the  Ameri- 
can Standard  of  Perfection  under  the  regulations  given 
in  the  following  extract  from  the  constitution  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association: 

ARTICLE    XI 

New  Breeds  and  Varieties 

SECTION  1.  Before  a  new  breed  or  variety  can  be 
admitted  to  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection  it 
must  comply  with  the  following  requirements,  to-wit: 

(a)  It  must  be  able  to  produce  50%  of  the  specimens 
reasonably  true  to  the  type  and  characteristics  of  the 
breed  or  variety,  as  set  forth  in  the  proposed  standard, 
and  must  have  been  exhibited  in  at  least  two 


188        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

generations,  both  male  and  female,  at  not  less  than  one 
show  conducted  under  American  Poultry  Association 
rules  in  each  of  three  successive  annual  seasons. 

(b)  Written  statement  of  one  or  more  poultry  judges 
who   are    members    of   the    A.    P.    A.    and    who    officiated 
at    this    show,    setting    forth    the    qualifications    of    the 
specimens   for   admission   to   the    Standard   shall   be   fur- 
nished by   said  judge  to  the  secretary  of  the  American 
Poultry    Association,    who    shall    forward    a    copy    of    the 
same  to  the  exhibitor  of  the  birds  concerned. 

(c)  If    application    is    made    for    admission    of    a    new 
breed,  the  breed  must  possess  such  new  breed  character- 
istics as  to  give  it  a  very  distinct  character  of  its  own, 
and    if    application    is    made    for    admission    of    a    new 
variety,    the    variety    must    truly    possess    all    the    type 
characteristics    of    the    breed    of    which    it    is    a    variety. 
Extraordinary  care  shall  be  exercised  to  prevent  multi- 
plicity of  varieties. 

SEC.  2.  A  petition  addressed  to  the  American  Poultry 
Association  shall  be  presented. 

(a)  This  petition  shall  contain  a  description  of  the 
breed  or  variety  seeking  admission,  together  with  all 
ascertainable  facts  regarding  its  origin  and  breeding,  and 
a  prayer  for  its  admission. 

(&)  Affidavits  of  not  less  than  five  breeders  of  the 
breed  or  variety  shall  be  presented,  containing  state- 
ments of  the  percentage  of  specimens  breeding  reason- 
ably true  to  type  and  characteristics  of  the  breed  or 
variety  as  above  required. 

(c)  The  proposed  standard  for  the  breed  or  variety 
shall  be  presented  at  the  same  time  with  the  petition, 
but  may  be  amended  by  the  petitioner  or  the  association 
before  the  admission  of  the  breed  or  variety.  This 
standard  shall  be  read  at  the  meeting  at  which 
admission  of  the  breed  or  variety  is  sought. 

(G?)  At  least  ninety  (90)  days  prior  to  the  meeting  of 
the  association  at  which  admission  to  the  Standard  of 
Perfection  is  sought,  the  papers  required  in  the  applica- 
tion shall  be  filed  with  the  secretary,  who  shall  give  to 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        189 

all   members   of   the    association    sixty    (60)    days'    notice 
of  the  pendency  of  such  application. 

SEC.  3.  If  upon  consideration  of  all  the  evidence,  the 
association  is  satisfied  that  the  breed  or  variety  is 
worthy  of  recognition  in  the  Standard  of  Perfection; 
that  it  has,  in  fact,  the  qualities  and  characteristics  set 
forth  in  the  application;  that  all  claims  and  character- 
istics set  forth  iri  the  application  are  justified;  and  that 
all  requirements  for  its  admission  have  been  complied 
with,  a  majority  vote  of  the  members  present  and  voting 
by  written  ballot  shall  admit  the  breed  or  variety  to 
the  Standard  of  Perfection. 


STANDARD   AND   NON-STANDARD   VARI- 
ETIES OF  POULTRY 

Show-room  classifications  are  not  the  same  in  all 
countries  or  even  in  all  parts  of  the  same  country. 
In  America  they  are  usually  made  to  conform  to  the 
breeds  and  their  varieties  as  listed  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection.  But  in  addition  to  such  varie- 
ties, some  show-room  classifications  will  include  a  few 
of  the  non-standard  varieties,  and  the  greater  number 
of  them  will  permit  classes  for  any  of  the  non-standard 
varieties,  either  of  a  particular  breed  or  of  many  breeds. 

The  list  of  breeds  and  varieties  of  poultry  in  the 
accompanying  table  includes  only  those  that  are  known 
to  reproduce  their  kind  of  a  settled  type  of  form  and 
color.  In  the  column  headed  Standard  Varieties  are 
listed  the  varieties  of  fowls  included  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection;  in  the  column  headed  Non- 
Standard  Varieties  are  listed  the  varieties  not  included 
in  that  publication,  but  which  are  bred  in  the  United 
States  and  other  countries,  many  of  them  being  standard 
varieties  in  other  countries.  In  compiling  this  list,  a 
slight  deviation  from  a  set  rule  has  been  made.  The 
Antwerp  Brahma  has  been  listed  under  the  Asiatic 
fowls  as  a  non-standard  variety.  To  be  strictly  correct, 


190        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


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Classes  and  '. 

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ne  breed  may 
js  of  geese  ma 

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POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        201 

this  variety  is  not  a  true  Brahma  of  the  accepted  type, 
but  a  Belgian  variety,  and  for  the  sake  of  convenience 
and  uniformity  it  is  listed  as  both  an  Asiatic  and  a 
Belgian  fowl.  In  this  table  the  name  used  for  each 
variety  is  the  name  commonly  applied  to  it  in  its 
native  country. 


AMERICAN  POULTRY  SPECIALTY  CLUBS 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  American  Poultry  Specialty 
Clubs,  with  the  name  and  address  of  the  secretary  for 
each  for  1912.  The  latest  address  of  the  secretary  of 
any  club  may  be  obtained  from  S.  T.  Campbell,  Sec- 
retary of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  Mansfield, 
Ohio. 

American  Black  Minorca  Club,  Frank  McGrann,  Secy., 
Lancaster,  Pa. 

American  Bourbon  Red  Turkey  Club.,  E.  J.  Reed, 
Secy.,  Oblong,  111. 

American  Buff  Leghorn  Club,  Geo.  S.  Barnes,  Secy.,. 
Marshall,  Mich. 

American  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  William  A. 
Stolts,  Secy.,  R.  F.  D.  No.  19,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

American  Buff  Wyandotte  Club,  Henry  R.  Ingalls, 
Secy.,  Greenville,  N.  Y. 

American  Buttercup  Club,  I.  F.  Tillinghast,  Secy., 
Factoryville,  Pa. 

American  Campine  Club,  M.  R.  Jacobus,  Secy.,  Ridge- 
field,  N.  J. 

American  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  Edw.  B. 
Kaple,  M.  D.,  Secy.,  Elbridge,  N.  Y. 

American  Cornish  Club,  F.  H.  Williams,  Secy.,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn. 

American  Dominique  Club,  A.  Q.  Carter,  Secy.,  Free- 
port,  Me. 

American  Dorking  Club,  Robt.  Officer,  Secy.,  N. 
Grafton,  Mass. 

American  Exhibition  Game  and  Game  Bantam  Club, 
C.  F.  Schenker,  Secy.,  141  E.  25th  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


202        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

American  Langshan  Club,  Rees  F.  Matson,  Secy., 
Greencastle,  Ind. 

The  American  Houdan  Club,  John  T.  Heizer,  Pres., 
Columbus,  O. 

American  Leghorn  Club,  W.  W.  Babcock,  Secy.,  Bath, 
N.  Y. 

American  Orpington  Club,  Frank  W.  Gaylor,  Secy., 
Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

American  Partridge  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  S.  A.  Noftz- 
ger,  Secy.,  North  Manchester,  Ind. 

American  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  A.  C.  Smith,, 
Secy.,  Waltham,  Mass. 

American  White  Wyandotte  Club,  Geo.  W.  Dakin, 
Secy.,  Roxbury,  Mass. 

American  White  Orpington  Club,  F.  S.  Dullington, 
Secy.,  Box  328,  Richmond,  Va. 

The  Ancona  Club  of  America,  Geo.  Johnson,  Secy., 
377  So.  Detroit  Ave.,  Toledo,  O.  " 

Blue  Andalusian  Club,  E.  L.  C.  Morse,  Secy.,  7411 
Bond  Ave.,  Chicago.  111. 

Buff  Minorca  Club  of  America,  S.  O.  Lindgren,  Pres., 
Kingsburg,  Cal. 

Canadian  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  F.  R.  Boyce, 
Secy.,  London,  Ont. 

Canadian  Leghorn  Club,  Wm.  Cadman,  Secy.,  St. 
Thomas,  Ont. 

Canadian  White  Plymouth  Club,  P.  Dill,  Secy,  Sea- 
forth,  Ont! 

Canadian  White  Wyandotte  Club,  J.  F.  Daly,  Secy., 
Seaforth,  Ont. 

Columbian  Wyandotte  Breeders'  Association  of 
America,  Philip  Koehlinger,  Secy.,  Ft.  Wayne,  Ind. 

Hamburg  Fanciers'  Club,  W.  L.  Allen,  Secy.,  62 
Franklin  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

International  Ancona  Club,  J.  W.  McNary,  Secy., 
Bannock,  O. 

International  Bantam  Breeders'  Club,  Mrs.  A.  J. 
Kimmey,  Morgan  Park,  111. 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        203 

International  Waterfowl  Association,  Theo.  F.  Jager, 
Secy.,  Pittsford,  N.  Y. 

International  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorca  Club,  Lloyd 
C.  Mishler,  Secy.,  North  Manchester,  Ind, 

National  Bronze  Turkey  Club,  E.  F.  Pullins,  Secy., 
Rensselaer,  Ind. 

National  Columbian  Wyandotte  Club,  Geo.  F.  Eastman, 
Secy.,  Granby,  Mass. 

National  Exhibition  Game  and  Game  Bantam  Club, 
E.  J.  Dietz,  Secy.,  Downer's  Grove,  111. 

National  Partridge  Wyandotte  Club,  William  Erfurth, 
Secy.,  South  Chicago,  111. 

National  Red  Feather  Club,  Edgar  L.  Andrews,  Secy., 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

National  Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  Club,  W.  E. 
Burleigh,  Secy.,  Larrabee's  Point,  Vt. 

National  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorn  Club,  Lincoln, 
111. 

National  Single-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  Club,  Cedar 
Rapids,  la. 

National  Single-Comb  White  Leghorn  Bantam  Club, 
C.  H.  Yates,  Secy.,  Greenville,  S.  C. 

National  Single-Comb  Buff  Orpington  Club,  V.  O. 
Hobbs,  Secy.,  Trenton,  Mo. 

National  Single-Comb  White  Leghorn  Club,  F.  O. 
Groesbeck,  Secy.,  Hartford,  Conn. 

National  White  Wyandotte  Club,  L.  J.  Demberger, 
Secy.,  Stewartsville,  Ind. 

National  White  Indian  Runner  Duck  Club,  J.  H. 
Reynolds,  Secy.,  Box  300,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

New  England  White  Wyandotte  Club,  Arthur  G. 
Duston,  Secy.,  South  Framingham,  Mass. 

Partridge  Wyandotte  Club,  H.  R.  Hildreth,  Secy., 
Worcester,  Mass. 

Plymouth  Rock  Club  of  Southern  California,  H.  D. 
Armstrong,  Secy.,  603  W.  41st  Drive,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Rhode  Island  White  Club,  Mrs.  C.  M.  Vertrees,  Secy., 
Cecelian,  Ky. 


204        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

Rhode  Island  Red  Club  of  America,  W.  H.  Card, 
Secy.,  Manchester,  Conn. 

Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte  Club,  G.  S.  Boiler,  Secy., 
Little  Valley,  N.  Y. 

Silver  Wyandotte  Club,  Henry  Steinmesch,  Secy., 
220  Market  St.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Waterfowl  Club  of  America,  Mrs.  W.  P.  Mastern, 
Secy.,  Pleasant  Valley,  N.  Y. 

Western  Black  Minorca  Club,  O.  H.  Wilson,  Secy., 
1268  So.  Logan  Ave.,  Denver,  Colo. 

White  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  Charles  H.  Ward,  Secy., 
Bethel,  Conn. 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  OF  POULTRY 

The  accompanying  table  gives  the  standard  weights 
of  all  poultry  having  standard  weights,  the  average 
weight  of  those  standard  fowls  that  do  not  have 
standard  weights,  and  the  average  weights  of  non- 
standard  poultry.  At  the  end  of  the  table  is  a  list 
of  notes  giving,  among  other  things,  the  disqualifying 
weights  of  bantam  fowls. 

The  weights  given  for  non-standard  fowls  and  for 
fowls  that  do  not  have  standard  weights  have  been 
gathered,  so  far  as  possible,  from  records  printed  in 
countries  where  the  fowls  have  originated  and  where 
they  are  best  known  and  most  plentifully  bred.  Fowls 
of  all  breeds  that  are  intended  to  be  of  a  medium  size 
or  larger  average  heavier  in  weight  in  England  than  in 
America.  The  Mediterranean,  the  American,  the  English, 
and  the  French  fowls  average  heavier  in  England  than 
in  America.  The  English  prefer  general-purpose  fowls 
and  select  to  have  them  as  heavy  as  possible  consistent 
with  the  dual  purpose  of  table  poultry  and  egg  pro- 
duction. In  America,  the  Mediterranean  fowls  have 
been  kept  within  the  weights  considered  best  suited  for 
fowls  bred  for  egg  production.  The  American  breeds 
have  been  controlled-  within  the  proportions  considered 
best  suited  for  general-purpose  breeds. 


POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        205 
STANDARD   WEIGHTS   OF  POULTRY 

FOWLS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Pounds 

Hen 
Pounds 

Cockerel 
Pounds 

PuUet 
Pounds 

American  fowls: 
Plymouth  Rock. 
Wyandotte  
Rhode  Island 
Red    

Vl/2 

81A 
81A 

7H 
6H 

6M 

8 
71A 

71A 

6 

5H 

5 

Do  minique 

7 

5 

6 

4 

Java       

9^ 

71A 

8 

§1A 

*Jersey  Blue 

10 

8 

7 

5 

Buckeye  

9 

6 

8 

5 

Asiatic  fowls: 
Light  Brahma  .  . 
Dark  Brahma  .  . 
Cochin     

12 
11 
11 

9H 
8H 
91A 

10 
9 
9 

8 

7 
7 

Langshan 

$1A 

8 

6H 

Belgian  fowls: 
*AntwerpBrahma 
*Ardenne  
*Brabant 

12 

15  to  6y2 

8 

Q1A 
24  to  5 
6 

10 

7 

8 
5 

*Braekel  

*6  to  8 

24  to  6 

.*Bruges  
*Campine  
*  Flemish       

»8  to  10 
1±1A  to  5 
*6H  to  9 

27  to  9 
23H  to  4 
24^  to  6 

*Herve  
*Huttegem   .    .  . 

!3  to4 
J9  to  11 

22  to  3 
27  to  9 

*M  alines 

19  to  11  Yi 

28  to  10 

410 

•8 

Dutch  fowls: 
*Breda  

16  to  9 

25  to  6K 

*Drente 

15  to  5$ 

24  to  4H 

'Hamburg  
*Owl-B  carded 
Dutch  
Red  Cap  
English  fowls: 
6Colored  Dorking 
S  i  1  v  e  r-G  ray 
Dorking  
White  Dorking  . 
Orpington  
*Scotch  Dumpy.  . 
*Scotch  Gray  .... 

55 

71A 
71A 

9 

8 

^ 

*8 
J9  to  11 

54 

9* 

7 

VA 
6 
8 
25  to  6 
27  to  9 

6H 
6 

8 

6H 
81A 

4^ 
5 

6 

5^ 
5 

7 

206        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 
TABLE — (Continued) 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Pounds 

Hen 
Pounds 

Cockerel 
Pounds 

Pullet 
Pounds 

English  fowls  — 
(Continued)  : 
*Sussex.               .  .  . 

lO^toll^ 

8  H  to  9  H 

9  to  10 

7  to  8 

French  fowls: 
Crevecceur 

8 

7 

7 

6 

7Houdan     

7^ 

gu 

6^ 

51A 

LaFleche  ... 
*La  Bresse     

8H 
*5  to  6  Yz 

m 

24  Yz  to  5  Yz 

6H 

*B  ourbourg 

iQH  to  9 

26  to  7 

*Faverolle       .... 

7to8H 

6  to  7 

6  to  7 

5  to  6 

Game  fowls: 
^Exhibition  Game 
Cornish,   or  In- 
dian, Game.  .  . 
Whit  e-Laced 
Red  Cornish.  . 
8Malay 

!7to9 
9 

8 
9 

25  to  7 

7 

6 

7 

8 

7 
7 

6 

5 
5 

3Sumatra  
*Aseel  

*Old-English  
German  fowls: 
Lakenf  elder  
Mediterranean 
fowls: 
3Ancona  
Andalusian    .... 

15  to  6 
16 

VtH  to  7 

!5to6 

1Q 
6 

24  to  5 
25 
24  to  5 

23  H  to  4  K 

25 
5 

5 

4 

3Leghorn  
Single-Comb  Mi- 
norca   

1,r>Kto7 
9 

24^to5^ 

m 

71A 

6H 

S  i  n  g  1  e-Comb 
White    and 
Rose-  Comb 
Black  Minorca 
Spanish  
^Polish  fowls:  
Miscellaneous  fowls: 
3Frizzle  

8 
8 
i5^to6H 

9H 

QY2 
Q1A 
21  to  5 

7^ 

6H 
6^ 

8 

5H 
5J^ 

6 

*Naked  Neck  
*Rumpless  
sSilky            

9^ 
7 
6 

7H 
5 
4 

8 
6 
5 

6 
4 
3 

^Sultan  
*  Yokohama  ,  Tosa  , 
or  Phoenix  

15 
i4Mto6 

24 
22^to4 

POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        207 

TABLE—  (Continued) 
BANTAM  FOWLS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Ounces 

Hen 
Ounces 

Cockerel 
Ounces 

Pullet 
Ounces 

Standard   bantam 
fowls: 
'Booted  
10Brahma  

26 
30 

22 
26 

22 
26 

20 
24 

"Cochin 

30 

26 

26 

24 

Exhibition  Game 
Bantam  
^  Japanese 

22 
26 

20 
22 

20 
22 

18 
20 

"Polish           

26 

22 

22 

20 

"Rose-Comb  
^Sebright        

26 
26 

22 
22 

22 

22 

20 
20 

Miscellaneous 
bantams: 
*Andalusian 

26 

22 

22 

20 

*Aseel  

26 

24 

24 

22 

*Frizzle 

30 

26 

26 

24 

*  German 

30 

26 

26 

24 

*Langshan 

30 

26 

26 

24 

*  Leghorn 

26 

22 

22 

20 

16Malay       .   .      . 

26 

24 

24 

22 

*Minorca  

30 

26 

26 

24 

*  Nankin 

30 

26 

26 

24 

*Rumpless  
*ScotchGray  
3Silky 

30 
30 
30 

26 
26 
26 

26 
26 
26 

24 
24 
24 

*Spanish  

26 

22 

22 

20 

*Sultan 

30 

26 

26 

24 

*  Yokohama  

30 

26 

26 

24 

DUCKS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Adult 
Drake 
Pounds 

Adult 
Duck 
Pounds 

Young 
Drake 
Pounds 

Young 
Duck 
Pounds 

Aylesbury  .  .  . 

9 

8 

8 

7 

3Call 

J2  YL  to  3 

22  to  2  ^ 

Cavuga.  .    .        ... 

8 

7 

6 

Crested  
East  India  

7 
7 

6 
6 

6 
6 

5 
5 

*Huttegem 

7 

6 

6 

5 

Indian  Runner.  ... 

4H 

4 

34 

»3H 

208        POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 
TABLE — (Continued) 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Adult 
Drake 
Pounds 

Adult 
Duck 
Pounds 

Young 
Drake 
Pounds 

Young 
Duck 
Pounds 

*Khaki              .    . 

7 

6 

Q 

Muscovy 

10 

7 

8 

*Orpington   

7 

5 

Q 

ej 

*Partridge  

7 

6 

g 

5 

Pekin     

9 

g 

Q 

7 

Rouen  

9 

8 

3 

7 

Swedish  

8 

7 

ft\£ 

ClX 

GEESE 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Adult 
Gander 
Pounds 

Adult 
Goose 
Pounds 

Young 
Gander 
Pounds 

Young 
Goose 
Pounds 

African  
*Buff  
Chinese  

20 
12 

18 
10 

16 
10 

14 

8 

Egyptian  
Embden  

10 
20 

8 
18 

8 
18 

6 
16 

Toulouse   

25 

20 

20 

16 

Wild,  or  Canadian 

12 

10 

10 

8 

TURKEYS,  GUINEA  FOWLS,  AND  PEAFOWLS 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Cock 
Pounds 

Hen 
Pounds 

Cockerel 
Pounds 

Pullet 
Pounds 

Turkeys: 
Black  
Bourbon  Red.  .  . 
Bronze  
Buff   .  . 

27 
30 
1736 
27 

18 
18 
20 
18 

18 
22 
25 
18 

12 
14 
16 
12 

*Cambridge 
Bronze  
*Fawn  
*Gray  

U8  to  24 
US  to  20 

28 

212  to  16 
212  to  16 
16 

18 

10 

Narragansett  .  .  . 
*Ronquieres  
Slate 

i»30 
30 
27 

18 
18 
18 

20 
20 
18 

12 
12 
12 

White  
Guinea  fowls: 
All  varieties  .... 
Peafmvls: 
All  varieties  .... 

28 
14  to  6 

U2  to  18 

18 

23  to  5 
27  to  12 

20 

14 

POULTRY  SHOWS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS        209 

NOTES    ON    STANDARD    WEIGHTS   OF    POULTRY 
*Non-standard  breed. 
1Cock  and  cockerel. 
2Hen  and  pullet. 
3No  standard  weights. 
«At  10  mo- 
6Penciled  Hamburgs.     In  other  Hamburg  varieties  the  fowls 

are  somewhat  heavier. 
•Colored  Dorking  cocks  often  weigh   from  12  to  14  lb.;  hens 

and  cockerels,  from  9  to  10  lb.;  and  pullets,  from  7  to  8  lb. 
7It  is  not  unusual  for  Houdans  to  exceed  these  weights. 
^Standard  height,  cock,  26  in.;  hen,  18  in.;  cockerel,  18  in.; 

pullet,  15  in. 
•Disqualifying  weights  for   Booted   Bantams:  cocks,  28  oz.; 

hens,  24  oz.;  cockerels,  24  oz.;  pullets,  22  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights  for  Brahma  Bantams:  cocks,  34  oz.; 

hens,  30  oz.;  cockerels,  30  oz.;  pullets,  28  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights  for   Cochin    Bantams:  cocks,  34  oz.; 

hens,  30  oz.;  cockerels,  30  oz.;  pullets,  28  oz. 
^Disqualifying  weights  for   Black-Tailed  Japanese  Bantams: 

cocks,  30  oz.;  hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz. 

Disqualifying  weights  for  White  Japanese  Bantams:  cocks, 

30  oz.;  hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz.     Dis- 
qualifying   weights    for    Black    Japanese    Bantams:    cocks, 

30  oz.;  hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights   for   Polish    Bantams:   cocks,   30  oz.; 

hens,  26  oz. ;  cockerels,  26  oz. ;  pullets,  24  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights  for  Rose-Comb  Bantams:  cocks,  28  oz.; 

hens,  24  oz.;  cockerels,  24  oz.;  pullets,  22  oz. 
"Disqualifying  weights  for  Sebright  Bantams:  cocks,  30  oz.; 

hens,  26  oz.;  cockerels,  26  oz.;  pullets,  24  oz. 
"English  standard  weights  for  Malay  Bantams:  cocks,  3H  lb.; 

cockerels  and  hens.  3  lb.;  pullets,  2  lb. 
"Weight  of  adult  Bronze  turkey  cock;  yearling  cock  weighs 

33  lb. 
18Weight  of  adult   Narragansett  .turkey  cock;  yearling    cock 

weighs  25  lb. 


210 


MARKING  OF  POULTRY 


MARKING  OF  POULTRY  FOR  IDEN- 

TIFICATION 
MARKING   OF  FOWLS 

To  attain  the  greatest  success  in  breeding  poultry, 
whether  for  egg  production,  market  purposes,  or  fancy 
stock,  a  poultryman  must  know  the  pedigree  of  the 
fowls  mated,  and  in  order  to  be  able  to  identify  each 
fowl,  some  system  of  marking  chicks  must  be  adopted. 

A  system  of  toe  markings  that  can  be  used  for  a 
limited  number  of  fowls  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  As  shown 
in  the  illustration,  fifteen  different  combi- 
nations can  be  made  by  punching  holes  in 
the  toes  of  chicks.  A  number  of  forms  of 
punches  are  made  for  this  purpose;  several 
of  these  are  shown  in  Fig.  2  (a),  (6),  (c), 
(d)>  and  O).  Care  must  be  exercised  to 
entirely  remove  the  severed  portion  of  the 
web  to  prevent  it  from  growing  together 
again.  The  wound  will  heal  in  a  few  days. 
In  building  up  a  strain  of  good  layers, 
the  beginning  is  usually  made  by  marking 
chicks  from  the  most  prolific  layers.  The 
same  principle  is  applied  in  the  establishment 
of  a  good  strain  of  market  poultry.  These 
markings  are  used  on  the  progeny  of  selected 
stock  only  and  serve  as  a  guide  for  the 
selection  of  the  pullets  that  should  be  saved 
for  winter  layers.  Those  that  have  toe 
markings  should  be  kept,  no  matter  what 
their  appearance  may  be,  for  in  this  way 
yV  only  can  a  good  start  be  made. 
FIG.  1  Records  can  be  kept  quite  as  readily  with 

chicks  artifically  hatched  as  with  hen-hatched  chicks, 
The  partitioned  incubator  egg  tray  can  be  used  for  holding 
the  eggs  from  selected  hens.  The  eggs  are  marked 


^.    «^ 


FOR  IDENTIFICATION 


211 


with  numbers  before  they  are  placed  in  the  incubator 
for  hatching.  On  the  eighteenth  day  of  incubation,  the 
numbered  eggs  are  transferred  from  the  regular  egg  tray 
into  the  special  tray.  When  hatched  in  this  tray,  the 
chicks  cannot  get  out  of  it.  Alter  they  have  been  marked, 
the  chicks  may  be  placed  in  a  brooder  with  other  chicks 
with  no  danger  of  their  identity  becoming  lost.  Separated 
trays  can  be  used  in  any  incubator.  Partitions  can  be 
made  of  tin  or  wood,  and  they  can  be  placed  in  the  egg 
trays  to  separate  the  eggs  as  well  as  the  chicks  when 
they  are  hatched.  When  they  are  used,  the  unmarked 
chicks  must  not  be  allowed  to  drop  into  the  nursery;  if 
this  is  permitted,  their  identity  will  be  lost. 

To  keep  a  correct  record  of  chicks  hatched  by  hens, 
each  hen  should  have  eggs  from  only  one  hen  given  her 
for  hatching. 


(d) 


FIG.  2 


The  toe-marking  system  is  satisfactory  for  a  small 
number  of  selected  fowls,  but  when  the  breeding  opera- 
tions are  on  an  extensive  scale  some  other  system  of 
marking  must  be  adopted.  Bands  of  some  kind  for 
attaching  to  the  shanks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  are  satis- 
factory for  marking  fowls  and  permit  of  sufficient 


212 


MARKING  OF  POULTRY 


variations.     Several  forms  of  aluminum  bands  are  shown 
in    Fig.    4,     The    small    band   shown    in    (a)    is    suitable 


FIG.  3 

for  placing  around  the  shank  of  a  chick,  and  later,  when 
the  shank  grows  too  large  for  this  band,  it  may  be 
removed  and  fastened  thorough  the  web  of  the  wing. 
The  band  shown  in  (&)  is  used  for  chicks  also,  but  is 


FIG.  4 

rather  too  wide  to  insert  in  the  web  of  the  wing.    After 
a  fowl  reaches  its  full  growth,  a  band  like  that  shown  in 


FOR  IDENTIFICATION 


213 


(c),  which  may  be  sealed,  may  be  fastened  about  the 
shank.  This  band,  fastened  with  a  rivet,  is  shown  in 
(rf).  The  fastening  is  done  very  easily  with  a  pair 
of  pincers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  After  being  well  fastened 


FIG.  5 

or  sealed,  such  a  band  will  last  the  lifetime  of  a  fowl, 
unless  removed  by  cutting.  All  of  these  bands  may  be 
stamped  with  any  number  or  other  characters  desired. 
A  type  of  aluminum  band  known  as  an  interlocking 
band  is  shown  in  Fig.  4  (?). 

Colored  celluloid  bands  are  used  for  marking  fowls 
kept  in  large  flocks.  They  are  most  useful  when  used 
in  connection  with  the  metal  bands  and  serve  as  a 
means  of  quick  identification  for  various  large  groups 


(a) 


of  fowls  when  they  are  kept  in  big  flocks;  that  is,  all 
the  chicks  hatched  in  one  year  may  have  a  blue  band; 
those  hatched  the  next  year,  a  red  band;  the  next,  a 
yellow  band;  and  so  on.  In  this  way  the  age  of  fowls 


214  MARKING  OF  POULTRY 

may  be  told  at  a  glance.  The  bands  may  be  used  also  to 
identify  strains  or  families  of  fowls.  Though  they  have 
their  usefulness  in  this  way,  they  are  not  an  absolutely 
accurate  means  of  identifying  fowls;  in  addition  they 
are  liable  to  be  lost  from  the  shank;  in  such  cases, 
if  no  other  band  were  used,  the  identity  of  a  fowl 
would  be  lost.  Three  celluloid  markers  are  shown  in 
Fig.  6.  The  ring  shown  in  (a)  encircles  the  shank  a 
number  of  times.  One  end  of  this  is  hooked  about  the 
shank  and  then  the  rest  is  wound  around  much  in  the 
same  manner  that  a  key  is  worked  on  a  key  ring.  The 
ring  shown  in  (6)  is  a  small  one  of  the  same  type  as 
that  shown  in  (a).  In  (c)  is  shown  a  flat  celluloid  band. 
Poultry  supply  houses  sell  celluloid  rings  and  bands  in 
as  many  as  eight  different  colors. 


MARKING  OF  PIGEONS 

To  build  up  the  productiveness  of  a  flock  of  pigeons 
and  to  maintain  the  quality  of  the  squabs,  it  is  necessary 
to  mark  breeding  pigeons  in  such  a  way  that  their 
identity  can  be  easily  determined.  This  is  usually  done 
by  fastening  a  suitably  marked  band  of  some  kind 
about  the  shank  of  each  bird.  A  careful  record  of  each 
breeding  pigeon  should  be  kept  in  a  record  book.  This 
record  should  include  the  ancestors  of  each  bird,  their 
egg  production,  the  time  it  takes  for  them  to  hatch 
their  squabs,  the  time  it  takes  for  them  to  rear  their 
squabs  to  a  marketable  size,  and  notes  as  to  the  quality 
of  their  squabs.  With  this  information  systematically 
arranged  it  will  be  possible  to  prevent  harmful  inbreed- 
ing and  to  mate  the  offspring  of  different  pigeons  in 
such  a  way  as  to  improve  the  productiveness  and  quality 
of  the  flock. 

Bands  suitable  for  marking  breeding  pigeons  can  be  ob- 
tained in  several  styles  from  dealers  in  poultry  supplies. 
Some  of  these  bands  are  made  so  that  they  indicate  only 
the  year  in  which  the  breeders  were-  first  mated.  This 
is  usually  done  in  one  of  two  ways,  either  by  having 


FOR  IDENTIFICATION 


215 


different-colored  bands  for  each  year,  samples  of  which 
are  shown  in  Fig.  7,  or  by  stamping  the  year  on  the  band, 


as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  colored  bands  are  usually  more 
easily  distinguished  at  a  little  distance  than  those 
stamped  with  figures.  Other  shank  bands,  in  addition  to 
indicating .  the  year  in  which  the  breeders  were  first 
mated,  have  a  numeral  or  some  other  mark  that  indicates 


FIG.  8 

the  ancestors  of  the  birds.  Such  bands,  however,  are 
used  principally  in  the  breeding  of  exhibition  pigeons, 
the  system  being  too  complicated  for  the  producer  of 
commercial  squabs. 

In  marking  breeding  pigeons,  it  is  customary  to  place 
the  band  on  the  right  shank  of  male  birds  and  on  the 
left  shank  of  female 
birds.  Squabs  that  are 
to  be  kept  for  breeders 
should  have  a  band 
placed  on  them  as  soon 
as  they  are  ready  to 
leave  the  nest.  At  this 

time  it  is  impossible  to  p.        o 

determine  the   sex,  but 

the  band  can  be  placed  on  either  shank  to  preserve  the 
identity  of  the  squabs,  and  can  be  shifted,  if  necessary, 


216  MARKING  OF  POULTRY 

when  the  sex  can  be  determined.  Two  shank  bands  at- 
tached to  birds  are  shown  in  Fig.  9;  the  one  shown  in 
(a)  is  attached  to  the  right  shank  of  a  male  pigeon,  and 
that  shown  in  (&)  is  attached  to  the  left  shank  of  a 
female  pigeon. 

In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  device  for  holding  pigeons  while 
bands  are  being  placed  on  their  shanks.    Such  a  device 


FIG.  10 

is  particularly  useful  when  the  band  must  be  placed 
on  the  bird  by  one  person.  In  using  this  device  the 
pigeon  is  pushed  gently,  head  down,  into  the  cone, 
where  it  is  held  without  injury.  The  band  is  then 
fastened  about  the  shank  and  the  pigeon  released  from 
the  cone. 


POULTRY  MAN'S  CALENDAR  217 

CALENDAR  FOR   THE  POULTRY- 
MAN'S  YEAR 

OCTOBER 

October  is  usually  the  beginning  of  the  poultryman's 
year.  Ring  out  the  old  and  ring  in  the  new  is  usually 
practiced  at  this  time.  All  of  the  old  fowls  that  are 
useless  should  be  marketed;  the  flock  should  be  sepa- 
rated and  the  old  hens  and  young  pullets  placed  in 
different  apartments. 

As  the  weather  grows  colder,  more  precaution  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  ailment  from  creeping  into  the  flock. 
All  specimens,  old  or  young,  which  lack  size,  strength, 
or  vitality  should  be  culled  out  from  the  flock;  nothing 
but  strong,  healthy  specimens  should  remain. 

The  poultry  buildings  should  be  of  such  a  character 
that  no  drafts  of  air  can  blow  through  them.  All  air 
and  ventilation  should  come  in  from  the  front  of  the 
building. 

NOVEMBER 

The  spring-hatched  pullets  should  be  laying  at  this 
time,  and  the  best  of  egg-producing  rations  should  be 
fed  to  them  and  to  the  old  hens  as  well. 

The  growing  green  food  having  disappeared,  a  plentiful 
supply  of  sprouted  oats,  alfalfa  hay,  and  other  green 
foods  should  be  provided  to  take  its  place.  The  floor 
of  the  poultry  house  should  be  well  covered  with  dry 
litter  and  the  green  food  should  be  thrown  on  it.  This 
will  encourage  the  fowls  to  work  for  all  the  food  they 
get,  and  in  this  way  they  will  be  made  active  and  more 
healthy.  Fowls  that  are  too  weak  to  work  for  a  living 
are  usually  poor  layers  and  might  as  well  be  sold  to 
market. 

An  additional  culling  of  the  flock  should  be  made  at 
this  "time.  No  male  over  2  yr.  old  should  be  kept.  The 
earliest  and  best  cockerels  of  the  year  are  best  for 
breeding  purposes. 


218  POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR 

No  hen  or  pullet  that  does  not  show  the  proper  indi- 
cation for  egg  production  should  be  kept  after  this 
period. 

November  and  December  are  the  early  winter  months 
during  which  time  all  hens  and  pullets  should  begin 
to  lay.  If  they  have  been  carefully  fed  they  will  do  so. 

Hens  and  puliets  should  have  a  good  egg-producing 
diet  at  this  time.  One  of  the  necessities  of  poultry 
during  winter  months  is  that  they  shall  be  protected 
from  the  elements,  have  plenty  of  exercise  of  some  kind, 
and  be  fed  on  a  liberal  grain  ration  composed  of  the 
grains  best  suited  to  egg  production.  A  liberal  supply 
of  green  food,  also,  should  be  fed  during  the  winter 
months. 

DECEMBER 

This  month  is  the  most  severe  on  poultry  and  the  most 
trying  on  poultrymen  of  all  months  of  the  year.  The 
houses  should  be  kept  warm  and  dry  and  free  from 
drafts;  all  cracks  and  openings  should  be  carefully 
covered  or  stopped  up  to  prevent  drafts  through  the 
houses. 

Hens  will  lay  but  few  eggs  at  this  time,  when  the 
price  is  high  and  the  eggs  most  desirable.  For  this 
reason  every  effort  possible  should  be  made  to  make  the 
hens  lay.  The  only  way  to  secure  a  good  supply  of  eggs 
for  market  at  this  time  is  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  possibilities  of  egg  production  through  scientific 
management  and  feeding.  No  one  not  fully  informed  on 
these  matters  can  hope  to  have  a  full  egg  supply  from 
hens  or  pullets  during  midwinter  months. 

Plenty  of  green  food,  well-selected  grains,  the  proper 
quantity  of  nourishing  food,  and  fresh  water  are  neces- 
sities at  this  time. 

JANUARY 

Poultry  work  requires  constant  attention  during  this 
month. 

Cull  out  the  less  perfect  fowls  and  sell  all  those  not 
intended  for  producing  market  eggs  or  for  breeding. 


rOULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR  219 

During  the  last  part  of  January  look  over  the  fowls  and 
become  acquainted  with  those  suitable  for  breeding, 
so  that  no  time  will  be  lost  when  the  season  for  mating 
arrives. 

Fowls  will  need  more  fattening  food,  such  as  corn  and 
barley.  A  good  plan  to  follow  during  the  winter  is  to 
feed  a  grain  ration  composed  half  of  corn  and  the  other 
half  of  equal  parts  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley. 

Twice  a  week  or  every  other  day  feed  green  cut  bone. 

Dry  mash  is  one  of  the  most  popular  kinds  of  food  for 
poultry  during  the  winter  months.  One-third  of  a 
winter  dry-mash  mixture  should  consist  of  corn  meal  and 
the  rest  of  wheat  bran  and  wheat  middlings  and  some 
ground  oats.  The  same  ration  should  be  fed  during  Jan., 
Feb.,  and  March,  especially  in  parts  of  the  world  where 
these  months  are  cold  and  stormy. 

Supply  fowls  with  plenty  of  green  foods,  such  as 
turnips,  rutabagas,  cabbage,  lettuce,  cut  clover,  hay,  cut 
alfalfa,  etc. 

FEBRUARY 

Winter  is  coming  to  a  close,  and  spring-like  diseases 
will  prevail  in  some  localities.  Farthest  north,  cold 
weather  will  continue  for  some  time. 

Houses  should  be  protected  from  spring  rains,  snow 
and  sleet;  either  glass  windows  or  curtain  fronts  make 
good  protection. 

It  is  now  time  to  mate  fowls  for  the  production  of 
eggs  for  hatching;  select  the  best  of  all  and  keep  them 
separate  for  special  breeding.  No  sick  fowls  nor  fowls 
that  have  deformities  or  that  lack  superior  quality 
should  ever  be  used  in  the  breeding  pen.  The  best  of 
all  the  fowls  on  any  farm  will  produce  many  culls; 
this  is  reason  enough  for  using  only  the  selected  speci- 
mens for  breeding. 

A  liberal  supply  of  green  food  is  always  beneficial 
at  this  time,  because  such  food  increases  the  density 
of  the  albumen  of  an  egg,  and  the  heavier  or  more 
dense  the  albumen  of  the  egg  the  greater  strength  it 
will  have  for  nourishing  a  chick  in  the  embryo  state. 


220  POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR 

MARCH 

March  is  the  most  uncertain  month  of  the  year. 
Weather  conditions  cannot  be  depended  on.  March 
winds  are  the  most  piercing  of  the  year,  and  the  fowls 
must  be  protected  from  the  elements. 

Little  chicks  should  be  kept  under  hovers  that  are 
inside  of  a  building  that  is  tight  enough  to  protect  them 
from  the  elements.  March  chicks  make  Nov.  layers. 

Incubators  should  now  be  in  action.  Nests  made  for 
sitting  hens  should  be  deep  so  as  to  provide  a  comfort- 
able nest  for  the  hen.  Always  dust  the  body  of  a  sitting 
hen  with  insect  powder.  Persian  insect  powder  is  the 
best.  Dust  it  down  well  into  the  feathers  and  close  to 
the  skin  of  the  fowl.  This  dusting  should  be  renewed 
every  3  or  4  da.  for  1  wk.  or  10  da. 

A  soap  box  18  in.  or  2  ft.  square  with  some  sand  or 
earth  in  the  bottom  and  dry  hay  or  straw  packed  well 
down  on  top  of  this,  provides  an  excellent  nest  for  a 
sitting  hen. 

The  nest  for  a  sitting  hen  should  always  be  placed 
where  she  will  have  plenty  of  room,  light,  and  shelter 
from  the  elements,  yet  be  confined  where  she  cannot 
run  away  from  the  eggs.  She  should  be  watched  and 
put  back  on  the  eggs  if  she  seems  to  neglect  them. 
APRIL 

April  is  usually  the  most  favorable  month  of  the  year 
for  hatching  chicks;  at  this  time  the  grass  and  all 
vegetables  are  sending  up  new  growth,  and  there  is  plenty 
of  natural  food  for  the  little  chicks. 

April  i«  the  month  when  all  incubators  should  be 
filled  with  eggs  for  hatching,  and  all  broody  hens  should 
have  a  clutch  of  eggs. 

See  to  it  that  the  brooding  hens  are  well  fed  while 
doing  their  family  duty.  Laying  hens  should  have  more 
green  food  at  this  time  than  before.  Corn  bread  is 
good  food  for  the  mother  hen  and  little  chicks.  To  make 
such  corn  bread  mix  1  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder 
into  a  mixture  composed  of  1  pt.  of  corn  meal,  */2  pt. 
of  wheat  bran,  4  oz.  of  good  meat  scrap,  and  a  little 


POULTRY  MAN'S  CALENDAR 


221 


bone  meal,  and  add  a  pinch  of  salt.  Stir  the  mass  up, 
moistening  it  well  with  milk  or  water,  milk  preferred, 
and  bake  in  the  oven.  When  well  baked  and  cool,  it 
can  be  crumbled  and  fed  to  the  little  chicks. 

April,  May,  and  June  are  the  spring  months  in 
northern  latitudes.  Less  fattening  grain  should  be  fed 
during  this  period;  some  wheat  and  less  corn  should 
be  fed  to  the  poultry,  and  they  should  have  an  increased 
supply  of  green  food;  if  bugs  and  worms  are  not  plenti- 
ful on  the  range,  they 
should  have  animal  food  of 
some  kind. 

Young  chicks  and  grow- 
ing stock  should  be  fed  lib- 
erally during  this  period; 
they  cannot  have  too  much 
wholesome  grain.  Some 
dry  mash  is  helpful;  if  it 
is  desirable  to  grow  them 
quickly  for  market  pur- 
poses, wet  mash  may  be 
used. 

MAY 

Both  old  fowls  and 
young  chicks  should  have 
greater  freedom  during  the 
month  of  May  than  during 
the  preceding  months. 

All   parts   of   the   poultry 
houses,  the  nest  boxes,  and       lNDIAN  RuNNER  DRAKE 
the   runways    should   be   thoroughly   cleaned.     Brush   the 
ground  thoroughly  with  a  stiff  broom;  after  the  top  cover 
has  been  swept  away,  dig  up  the  soil  and  turn  it  under. 

Chicks  of  the  Asiatic,  American,  and  English  breeds 
should  be  hatched  prior  to  the  middle  of  May;  those 
of  the  Mediterranean  breeds  should  be  hatched  before 
the  end  of  May.  Chicks  of  all  kinds  will  do  well  if 
hatched  after  June  1,  but  they  are  seldom  of  much 
value  to  the  poultryman  except  for  table  purposes. 


222  POULTRY  MAN'S  CALENDAR 

JUNE 

In  some  localities  the  weather  will  be  very  warm 
during  the  month  of  June.  Shade  is  an  important  con- 
sideration at  this  time,  and  where  it  does  not  exist 
naturally  it  must  be  supplied  artificially. 

During  this  month  less  fattening  foods  than  given  in 
preceding  months  will  answer,  and  less  corn  and 
more  wheat  and  oats  should  be  fed.  Dry  mash  that 
contains  but  little  corn  meal  should  be  used. 

The  warmer  the  weather  the  more  green  food  and  pure 
fresh  water  will  be  needed  for  the  fowls.  No  fat  meat, 
but  some  lean  meat  should  be  fed  to  the  laying  hens 
during  this  month. 

June  is  apt  to  be  the  last  month  of  the  year  in  which 
chicks  are  hatched  and  the  eggs  from  which  they  are 
hatched  should  be  strong  and  full  of  vitality  to  infuse 
abundant  health  and  vigor  into  the  chicks.  If  the  fowls 
can  have  free  range  through  the  fields  and  woods  at 
this  time  it  will  be  of  benefit  to  them. 

JULY 

Cool,  shady  places  and  freedom  from  the  irritation  of 
overheated  houses  and  insect  vermin  should  be  the  order 
of  the  day. 

Poultry  must  have  shade  at  this  time  to  protect  them 
from  the  glaring  rays  of  the  sun,  which  will  scorch 
and  blister  their  backs  and  make  life  a  burden  to  them. 

On  the  farms,  all  the  male  fowls  should  be  taken 
away  at  this  time  and  sold.  They  are  of  no  further  use 
after  the  hatching  season  is  over. 

Thousands  of  eggs  shipped  to  market  during  the  heated 
term  are  destroyed  because  the  eggs  begin  to  hatch. 
This  will  occur  in  the  egg  boxes  traveling  on  trains 
when  the  temperature  is  above  100°  F.  If  no  males  are 
kept  with  the  hens,  especially  on  farms  in  the  southern 
climates,  there  will  be  fewer  spoiled  eggs  in  transit. 
If  all  the  hens  can  be  turned  into  a  wood  or  on  land 
from  which  grain  has  been  harvested  it  will  be  beneficial 
to  them. 


POULTRY  MAN'S  CALENDAR  223 

Plenty  of  fresh,  cool  water  for  drinking  and  a  clean 
place  for  roosting  must  be  provided  during  the  heated 
term. 

Insect  vermin,  including  lice  and  mites,  will  throng  the 
poultry  in  the  poultry  houses  during  the  heated  term, 
unless  prevented  through  cleanliness  and  care. 

July  and  August  are  the  hardest  months  of  the  year 
in  the  latitude  where  heat  is  intense  during  that  period. 
During  the  hot  period  fowls  should  have  principally 
wheat  and  oats — ground  oats,  wheat  bran,  and  wheat 
middlings  as  a  dry  mash. 

Fowls  intended  for  market  during  fall  months  should 
be  fed  liberally  during  this  period  with  fattening  food 
and  be  sold  to  market  as  soon  as  they  are  well  fattened. 

Shade  is  an  absolute  necessity  during  the  heated 
period.  If  natural  shade  does  not  exist  artificial  shade 
of  some  kind  must  be  provided. 

Fowls  should  be  in  full  molt  at  this  time.  Hens  that 
are  overly  fat  do  not  molt  quickly;  hens  that  are  very 
thin  in  flesh  are  slow  to  molt.  Fowls  in  good  con- 
dition usually  molt  the  best;  those  that  are  too  fat 
should  have  less  to  eat;  those  that  are  thin  in  flesh 
should  be  fed  liberally;  those  that  molt  well  should  be 
protected  from  cold  drafts  and  have  a  good,  nourishing 
ration.  Fowls  that  have  free  range  will  need  only 
proper  grain  diet. 

AUGUST 

During  the  heated  term  of  dog  days,  old  and  young 
fowls  of  all  kinds,  including  turkeys  and  water  fowls, 
suffer  intensely  from  heat,  and  plenty  of  green  food,  grit, 
and  fresh  water  should  be  provided. 

At  this  time  all  old  fowls,  male  and  female,  past 
2  yr.  old  should  be  sold.  The  hens  would  lay  but  few 
eggs  from  now  until  winter,  and  as  market  poultry 
they  will  probably  bring  more  than  at  any  other  time 
for  the  next  3  mo. 

Continued  cleanliness  in  and  about  the  poultry  houses, 
freedom  from  insect  vermin,  and  free  reign  are  the 
necessities  at  this  time. 


224 


POULTRYMAN'S  CALENDAR 


SEPTEMBER 

September  is  the  turning  point  in  the  life  of  both 
young  and  old  fowls.  The  old  fowls  are  in  molt  and 
the  young  fowls  finish  their  coat  of  feathers  at  this 
time,  and  they  must  be  well  cared  for  and  fed.  They 
must  be  built  up  for  the  coming  winter,  and  for  this 
reason  should  have  more  nourishing,  more  strengthening, 
and  more  fattening  foods  than  they  have  had  during 
the  summer. 

Cold  rains,  changeable  weather,  and  cool  winds  may 
be  injurious  to  poultry  at  this  time.  Colds,  catarrh,  and 


INDIAN  RUNNER  DUCK  EGGS 

roup  may  injure  the  fowls.  A  change  from  outdoor 
life  or  from  closed  coops  into  unclean  poultry  buildings 
may  do  great  injury  to  them. 

All  of  the  buildings  should  be  swept  out  perfectly 
clean,  and  all  cracks  and  crevices  should  be  brushed 
and  freed  absolutely  from  dust,  dirt,  and  lurking 
vermin.  The  floors,  doors,  and  windows  should  be  put 
in  good  repair  and  the  inside  of  the  buildings  sprayed 
with  some  material  that  is  both  healthy  and  a  perfect 
insect  destroyer  and  disinfector.  Plenty  of  green  'food 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  225 

and  an  increased  quantity  of  animal  food  should  be  fed 
at   this   time. 

September  is  the  beginning  of  the  fall,  and  at  this 
time  hens  lay  but  little.  Early-hatched  pullets  should 
begin  to  lay;  these  should  have  special  care  and  feeding. 
All  poultry  should  be  fed  at  this  time  with  reference 
to  the  winter  egg  production. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

How  to  Ascertain  the  Age  of  Fowls.— It  is  difficult  for 
an  amateur  to  decide  the  age  of  fowls.  Experienced 
poultrymen  are  at  times  unable  to  decide  from  outward 
appearance.  But  few  rules  are  safe  to  follow;  some  of 
them,  however,  may  be  depended  on. 

The  surface  of  the  skin  under  the  wing  of  a  pullet 
will  be  interspersed  or  marked  with  rose-colored  veins; 
these  are  totally  absent  in  hens  that  are  more  than 
12  mo.  old.  The  skin  of  pullets  will  be  fairly  well 
covered  with  long,  silky  hair;  this  disappears  directly 
after  the  first  molt. 

In  an  adult  hen  the  skin  will  be  white  and  free  from 
either  veins  or  hairs.  If  these  are  absent  it  can  be  seen 
at  a  glance  that  the  fowl,  if  a  hen,  must  be  more  than 
1  yr.  old. 

The  points  of  the  pelvic  bones  grow  much  closet 
together  in  a  pullet  than  in  a  hen,  yet  this  cannot 
always  be  depended  on,  as  the  cause  of  the  spreading 
of  the  pelvic  bone  is  prolific  egg  production.  Hens  that 
never  lay  may  have  the  points  of  the  pelvic  bones  closa 
together,  even  though  very  old.  Usually,  however,  this 
test  can  be  depended  on. 

The  scales  and  skin  on  the  shanks  and  feet  of  young 
fowls  are  usually  smooth  and  tender,  and  the  toenaila 
are  longer  and  more  pointed  than  the  toenails  of  older 
fowls.  The  scales  and  skin  on  the  shanks  and  feet  of 
older  fowls  become  rough  and  turn  a  whitish  gray  with 
age.  Scaly  legs  and  roughness  of  any  kind  on  the 


226 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


shanks  and  feet  indicate  an  age  of  more  than  a  year, 
in  all  kinds  of  poultry,  including  turkeys,  ducks,  and 
geese. 

The  faces  of  poultry  more  than  1  yr.  old  lose  their 
smooth  finished  appearance  and  become  wrinkled  and 
drawn.  The  eyes  and  eyelids  of  fowls  more  than  1  yr. 
old  do  not  have  the  fresh  appearance  of  young  poultry. 

One  of  the  best  indications  of  the  age  of  fowls 
is  the  appearance  of  the  secondaries.  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  first  complete  molt,  which  occurs  when  the  fowl 
is  about  12  mo.  old,  the  secondaries  alter  in  shape  and 


FIG.  1 

show  evidence  of  the  dividing  line  between  the  young 
and  the  old  fowl.  This  change  of  the  secondaries  cannot 
be  readily  described.  The  wings  of  pullets  and  of  old 
hens  must  be  held  alongside  of  one  another  and  compared 
and  studied  in  order  to  appreciate  the  marked  change 
that  occurs  in  the  shape  or  form  of  these  feathers. 

Proper  Way  to  Hold  a  Fowl.— When  a  fowl  is  carried 
about  or  held  in  the  hands  it  should  be  held  in  a  position 
that  is  comfortable  for  it  and  cleanly  for  the  person 
holding  it.  When  a  fowl  is  held  by  the  shanks  and  feet 
with  the  head  hanging  down,  it  suffers  considerable 
pain,  and  if  the  crop  contains  water,  the  water  will 


[MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  227 

run  out  through  the  gullet  and  partly  strangle  the  bird. 

One  of  the  most  cleanly  ways  to  carry  a  fowl  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1.  The  thighs  are  held  in  the  hand  with  one 
finger  in  between  them  to  avoid  too  much  pressure  on 
the  bones,  and  the  breast  of  the  fowl  rests  on  the  fore- 
arm of  the  person  holding  it.  The  fowl  suffers  no 
inconvenience,  and  there  is  little  danger  of  the  clothing 
of  the  holder  being  soiled  by  voidings  from  the  bird. 

When  the  fowl  is  held  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  feet 
of  the  fowl  are  free  to  rub  against  the  clothing  of  the 
holder,  and  any  filth  from  it  will  be  liable  to  drop  on 


FIG.  2 


and  smear  the  clothing  of  the  person  holding  the  bird. 

The  rule  to  observe  in  carrying  a  fowl  is  to  carry  it 
with  the  head  toward  and  the  tail  away  from  the  holder. 

Proper  Way  to  Hold  a  Squab.— Great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  picking  up  squabs,  as  it  is  very  easy  to 
injure  them.  Squabs  should  be  picked  up  by  gently 
passing  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  under  the  crop  and 
breast,  placing  the  left  hand  on  the  back,  and  sliding 
the  bird  into  the  palm  of  the  right  hand  without  grip- 
ping it  with  the  fingers.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  crop  of  the  bird  is  not  injured.  When  the 


228 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


crop  of  a  squab  is  full  it  is  heavy  and  apt  to  be  injured 
if  held  tightly.  It  is  not  necessary  to  close  the  fingers 

about  the  squab  un* 
less  it  becomes  rest- 
less and  tries  to  get 
away.  When  a  squab 
tries  to  escape  from 
the  hand,  the  fingers 
should  be  closed 
gently  about  the  body 
in  such  a  way  as  to 
-pIG  3  prevent  the  wings 

from     being     flapped 

about.  The  proper  way  in  which  a  squab  should  be  held 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  In  Fig.  4  is  shown  a  squab  being 
held  by  the  fingers.  This  is  the  improper  way  to  hold 
squabs  under  ordinary  circumstances,  because  there  is  a 
tendency  to  squeeze  them  too  tightly,  but  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  hold  very  lively  squabs  in  this  manner. 

Proper  Way  of  Catching  and  Holding  Pigeons.— Catch- 
ing and  holding  pigeons  should  be  done  with  care,  or 
the  birds  may  be 
injured.  Pigeons 
should  never  be 
roughly  handled  or  , 
held  by  the  feet  or 
by  the  wings  alone. 
The  proper  method 
of  holding  a  pigeon 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
As  shown,  the  hand 
is  placed  around  the 
rear  portion  of  the 


.p,        . 


body,  the  wings  and  tail  are  held  gently  but  firmly  by  the 
hand,  and  the  shanks  are  held  between  two  fingers  to 
prevent  them  from  moving.  When  pigeons  are  held  in 
this  way  they  will  be  comfortable  and  will  not  struggle  to 
free  themselves,  hence  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  of  tlie 
birds  will  not  become  broken,  and  females  will  not  be 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


229 


injured  during  their  egg-laying  period.  If  female  pigeons 
are  chased  in  a  pigeon  house  and  roughly  grabbed  with 
the  hands  or  caught  in  a  dip  net,  they  are  very  likely  to 
be  injured,  especially  if  this  is  done  during  their  egg- 
laying  period.  In  pigeon  houses  that  are  so  built  that  the 
birds  are  able  to  roost  high  overhead,  no  attempt  should 
be  made  to  catch  them  except  at  night,  and  then  a  box 
or  a  step  ladder  should  always  be  used  to  stand  on. 


FIG.  5 


Legal    Weights    per    Bushel   of    Various    Commodities. 

Following  are  given  the  legal  weights  per  bushel  of 
various  commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have 
been  adopted  in  but  one  or  two  states  and  legal  weights 
per  bushel  for  commodities  for  which  legal  weights 
have  been  widely  adopted. 

Alsike   (or  Swedish)   seed,  60  Ib.   (Md.  and  Okla.). 

Beggar  weed  seed,  62  Ib.   (Fla.). 

Bermuda  grass  seed,  40  Ib.   (Okla.). 

Blackberries,  30  Ib.  (la.);  48  Ib.  (Tenn.);  dried,  28  Ib. 
(Tenn.). 

Blueberries,  42  Ib.   (Minn.). 

Bromus  inermus,  14  Ib.  (N.  Dak.). 

Bur  clover,  in  hulls,  8  Ib.  (N.  C). 

Cabbage,  50  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Canary  seed,  60  Ib.  (Tenn.);  50  Ib.  (la.). 

Cantaloup  melon,  50  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Castor  seed,  50  Ib.  (Md.). 


230 


M ISC ELL  A  NEO  US  IN  FORM  A  TION 


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238  MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

NOTES  RELATING  TO  PRECEDING  TABLE 


iNot  defined. 
zSmall  white  beans,  60  Ib. 
3 Green  apples.  [wurzels. 

4Sugar     beets     and     mange) 
'Shelled  beans,   60  Ib.;   vel- 
vet beans,  78  Ib. 
sWhite  beans. 
7 Wheat  bran. 

8Green  unshelled  beans,  56  Ib. 
•English      blue-grass      seed, 

22    Ib.;    native    blue-grass 

seed,  14  Ib. 
MAlso  castor  seed. 
"Soybeans,  58  Ib.  [30  Ib. 

12Green       unshelled       beans, 
13Soybeans. 
14Free  from  hulls. 
^Commercially    dry,    for   all 

hard  woods. 
16Fifteen  Ib.  commercially  dry, 

for  all  soft  woods. 
17Standard  weight  in  borough 

of  Greensburg. 
MDried  beans. 
MRed  and  white. 
»Corn   in    ear,    70   Ib.    until 

Dec.    1   next   after  grown; 

68  Ib.  thereafter. 
21Sweet  corn. 
MOn  the  cob. 
^Indian  corn  in  ear. 
^Unwashed    plastering    hair, 

8    Ib.;    washed    plastering 

hair,  4  Ib. 
^Corn  in  ear,   from   Nov.    1 

to  May  1  following,  70  Ib.; 

68  Ib.  from  May  1  to  Nov.  1. 
^Indian-corn  meal. 
^Cracked  corn. 
»Shelled. 
»Free  from  hulls. 
^Standard    weight    bu.    corn 

meal,   bolted  or  unbolted, 

48  Ib. 
81Except    the    seed    of    long 

staple  cotton,  of  which  the 

weight  shall  be  42  Ib. 


32Green  unshelled  corn,  100  Ib. 

33Green  cucumbers. 

34See  also  "Pop  corn,"  "Indian 

corn,"  and  "Kafir  corn." 
35Green  peaches. 
36Green  pears. 
37 Malt  rye. 

^Top  sets;  bottom  sets,  32  Ib. 
saShelled,  56  Ib. 
"Shelled,  dry. 
"Strike  measure. 
*2Bottom  onion  sets. 
^German  and  American. 
"Shelled. 
^Peaches  (peeled);  unpeeled, 

32  Ib. 
^Cowpeas. 

*7Roasted;  green,  22  Ib. 
«Not  stated  whether  peeled 

or  unpeeled. 
*9Top  onion  sets. 
^Including  split  peas. 
51In  the  ear. 
62Slaked  lime,  40  Ib. 
^German,  Missouri,  and  Ten- 
nessee millet  seeds. 
"Matured  onions. 
55Bottom  onion  sets,  32  Ib. 
56  Matured. 
"Matured  pears,  56  Ib.;  dried 

pears,  26  Ib. 
^Black-eyed  peas. 
59Barley  malt. 
"Includes  Rice  corn. 
61Rice  corn. 

62Sorghum  saccharatum  seed. 
esRed  top  grass  seed  (chaff); 

fancy,  32  Ib. 
"Seed. 

65Irish  potatoes. 
66Free  from  hulls. 
87Ground  salt,  70  Ib. 
«>India  wheat,  46  Ib. 
69In  some  states  herd's  grass 

is  a  synonym  for  timothy; 
other    states     for    red 


top. 

The  states  of  Idaho,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  and  Wyoming  have 
no  standard  for  bushel  weights. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION  23S 

Cement,   80  Ib.    (Tenn.). 

Cherries,  40  Ib.  (la.);  with  stems,  56  Ib.  (Tenn.); 
without  stems,  64  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Chufa,  54  Ib.    (Fla.). 

Cotton  seed,  staple,  42  Ib.  (S.  C). 

Culm,   80  Ib.    (Md.).  ; 

Currants,  40  Ib.  (la.  and  Minn.). 

Feed,  50  Ib.   (Mass.). 

Fescue,  seed  of -all  the,  except  the  Tall  and  Meadow 
fescue,  14  Ib.  (N.  C). 

Fescue,  Tall  and  Meadow  fescue  grass  seed,  24  Ib. 
(N.  C.). 

Grapes,  40  Ib.  (la.);  with  stems,  48  Ib.  (Tenn.).;  with- 
out stems,  60  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Guavas,  54  Ib.   (Fla.). 

Hominy,  60  Ib.  (Ohio);  62  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Horseradish,  50  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Italian   rye-grass   seed,   20  Ib.    (Tenn.). 

Japan  clover  in  hulls,  25  Ib,  (N.  C.). 

Johnson  grass,  28  Ib.  (Ark.;;  25  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Kale,  30  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Land  plaster,  100  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Lentils,  60  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Lucerne,  60  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Lupines,  60  Ib.  (N.  C.) 

Meadow   seed,   tall,   14  Ib.    (N.   C.). 

Meal  (?),  46  Ib.  (Ala.);  unbolted,  48  Ib.  (Ala.). 

Middlings,  fine,  40  Ib.  (Ind.);  coarse  middlings,  30  Ib. 
(Ind.). 

Millet,  Japanese  barnyard,   35   Ib.    (Mass,   and  N.   H.). 

Mustard,  30  Ib.   (Tenn.). 

Mustard  seed,  58  Ib.  (N.  C). 

Oat  grass  seed,  14  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Plums,  40  Ib.  (Fla.);  64  Ib.  (Tenn.);  dried,  28  Ib. 
(Mich.). 

Prunes,    dried,    28    Ib.    (Idaho);    green,    45    Ib.    (Idaho). 

Radish  seed,  50  Ib.  (la.). 

Raspberries,    32    Ib.    (la.    and    Kan.);    48    3b.    (Tenn.). 

Rhubarb,  50  Ib.    (Tenn.). 


240  POULTRY  STATISTICS 

Sage,   4  Ib.    (Tenn.). 

Salads,  30  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Sand,   130  Ib.    (la.). 

Seed  of  brome  grasses,  14  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Spinach,   30  Ib.    (Tenn.). 

Strawberries,  32  Ib.  (la.);  48  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Sugar  cane  seed  (amber),  57  Ib.  (N.  J.). 

Sunflower  seed,  24  Ib.  (N.  C.). 

Teosinte,   59  Ib.   (N.  C.). 

Velvet  grass  seed,  7  Ib.  (Tenn.). 

Vetches,  60  Ib.  (N.  C). 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


VALUE     OF     POULTRY     AND     POULTRY 
PRODUCTS 

According  to  the  returns  of  the  census  of  1910,  the 
value  of  the  poultry  on  farms  of  the  United  States  on 
Apr.  15,  1910,  was  $154,663,220,  the  value  of  the  poultry 
produced  on  farms  in  1909  was  $202,506,272,  and  the  value 
of  the  eggs  produced  in  the  same  year  was  $306,688,960, 
a  total  value  of  $663,858,452  for  poultry  and  poultry 
products  for  the  year.  These  figures  do  not  represent  the 
value  of  all  the  poultry  and  poultry  products  of  the 
country,  for  the  reason  that  the  census  covers  only  the 
farms,  no  returns  being  made  of  the  poultry  and  eggs 
produced  in  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  and  about 
12%  of  the  farms  failed  to  make  returns.  It  has 
been  estimated  from  this  that  the  total  value  of  the 
poultry  and  poultry  products  of  the  United  States  for 
the  year  1909  was  not  far  from  $750,000,000. 

The  total  value  of  the  poultry  and  poultry  products 
of  the  United  States  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
has  been  estimated  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  commission  houses  of  the  country 
to  be  approximately  $950,000,000. 


POULTRY  STATISTICS  241 

POULTRY  ON   FARMS    IN  THE    UNITED    SEATES 

The  following  table  from  the  1910  census  gives  the 
numbers  of  the  various  kinds  of  poultry  reported  in  1910 
and  1900  as  being  on  farms  in  the  United  States  on  the 
dates  the  censuses  were  taken,  and  also  the  value  of 
the  various  kinds  of  poultry  and  the  number  of  farms 
reporting  each  kind  in  1910. 

Number  of  Farms  Reporting  Poultry.— The  total  num- 
ber of  farms  reporting  poultry  in  1910  was  5,585,032,  or 
87.8%  of  all  farms  in  continental  United  States.  Only 
6,507  of  the  farms  reporting  poultry  failed  to  report 
chickens.  Turkeys  were  reported  from  871,123  farms, 
or  13.7%;  ducks  from  503,704,  or  7.9%;  geese  from 
662,324,  or  10.4%;  guinea  fowls  from  339,538,  or  5.3%; 
and  pigeons  from  109,407,  or  1.7%. 

Number  and  Value  of  Fowls.— The  number  of  fowls 
reported  in  1910  was  295,880,000,  and  their  total  value 
was  $154,663,000,  or  an  average  value  of  52c.  Nearly 
95%  of  all  the  fowls  were  chickens;  they  numbered 
280,345,000,  and  their  value  was  $140,206,000,  the  average 
value  being  50c.  Turkeys  numbered  3,689,000  and  were 
valued  at  $6,606,000,  the  average  value  being  $1.79.  The 
ducks  reported  numbered  2,907,000,  and  were  valued  at 
$1,567,000,  with  an  average  value  of  54c.  Of  geese  the 
total  number  was  4,432,000,  and  the  value  $3,195,000,  or 
an  average  value  of  72c.  In  1910  there  were  also  re- 
ported 1,765,000  guinea  fowls,  valued  at  $613,000;  2,731,000 
pigeons,  valued  at  $762,000;  and  6,458  peafowls,  valued 
at  $18,300.  Ostriches  to  the  number  of  5,361  were  re- 
ported, with  a  value  of  $1,696,000,  or  over  $300  each.  The 
ostriches  were  reported  from  five  states:  Arizona, 
Arkansas,  California,  Florida,  and  Texas. 

Changes  in  Number  and  Value  of  Fowls,  1900  to  1910. 
The  total  number  of  fowls  in  the  United  States  in- 
creased from  250,624,000  in  1900  to  295,880,000  in  1910,  a 
gain  of  over  45,000,000,  or  18.1%.  The  figures  for  the 
two  censuses  are  comparable,  despite  the  change  in  date 
of  enumeration,  fowls  under  3  mo.  old  being  excluded 


242 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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POULTRY  STATISTICS  243 

in  both  cases.  The  number  of  turkeys,  ducks,  and 
geese,  however,  decreased  very  materially  in  nearly 
every  section  of  the  country.  The  aggregate  increase  in 
fowls  was,  therefore,  due  to  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  chickens,  which  rose  from  233,566,000  to  280,345,000,  or 
20%.  The  percentage  of  decrease  for  turkeys  was  44.1, 
for  ducks,  39.3,  and  for  geese  21.9.  Comparable  figures 
for  the  minor  classes  of  fowls— guinea  fowls,  peafowls, 
and  pigeons — are  not  available  for  1900.  The  number 
of  ostriches  reported  in  1900  was  only  684,  or  about  one- 
eighth  as  many  as  in  1910. 

The  percentage  of  increase  in  value  of  poultry  was 
over  four  times  as  great  as  that  in  number,  amounting 
to  80.2%.  The  average  value  per  fowl  thus  rose  from 
34c.  in  1900  to  52c.  in  1910. 

NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OF  ALL  FOWLS  ON  FARMS 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

The  following  table  from  the  1910  census  shows 
for  continental  United  States,  for  the  nine  geographic 
divisions  of  the  country,  and  for  each  state,  the  num- 
ber and  value  of  all  fowls  on  farms  in  the  United 
States  in  1910  and  1900  and  the  per  cent,  of  increase  in 
value  for  the  decade. 

Every  geographic  division  reports  an  increase  during 
the  decade  in  number  of  fowls  on  farms.  The  greatest 
actual  additions  appeared  in  the  East  North  Central  and 
West  North  Central  divisions,  and  these  two  divisions 
also  had  a  greater  percentage  of  increase  than  any  of 
the  others  except  the  rapidly  growing  Mountain  and 
Pacific  divisions.  For  the  two  North  Central  divisions 
combined  the  number  of  fowls  increased  22.7%;  for  the 
Mountain  and  Pacific  divisions  combined,  55.9%;  for 
the  East  and  West  South  Central  divisions  combined, 
4.3%;  for  the  New  England  division,  7.2%;  for  the 
Middle  Atlantic  division,  15.7%;  and  for  the  South 
Atlantic  division,  13.8%. 

The  number  of  chickens  increased  during  the  decade 
in  every  one  of  the  geographic  divisions,  but  the  number 


244 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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POULTRY  STATISTICS 


245 


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246 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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POULTRY  STATISTICS  247 

of  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese  decreased  in  every  division, 
except  that  there  were  increases  of  turkeys  and  geese  in 
the  Mountain  division  and  a  slight  increase  in  ducks  in 
the  Middle  Atlantic  division. 

Ten  Leading  Poultry  States.— Of  the  ten  states  leading 
in  total  value  of  poultry  on  farms,  Iowa  has  the  larg- 
est total  value  of  poultry,  amounting  to  $12,269,881,  and 
Missouri  ranks  second,  with  $11,870,972.  The  eight 
states  next  in  order  are  Illinois,  $11,696,650;  Ohio, 
$9,532,672;  New  York,  $7,879,388;  Indiana,  $7,762,015;  Penn- 
sylvania, $7,674,387;  Kansas,  $7,377,469;  Michigan,  $5,- 
610,958;  and  Texas,  $4,807,642.  In  these  ten  states  to- 
gether the  value  of  poultry  is  about  $86,482,000,  or  55.9% 
of  the  total  value  of  poultry  in  continental  United 
States. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF   FOWLS   IN   THE   UNITED 
STATES 

The  accompanying  table  from  the  1910  census  shows 
the  per  cent,  distribution  of  all  fowls  in  the  United 
States  in  1910  and  1900.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
greater  number  of  fowls  is  raised  in  the  East  North 
Central  and  the  West  North  Central  divisions  of  the 
United  States,  for  of  the  total  number  cf  fowls  in  con- 
tinental United  States  in  1910,  considerabl}7  over  one- 
half,  or  54.3%,  were  in  the  two  North  Central  divisions. 
About  one-fifth,  or  19.8%,  were  in  the  two  South  Central 
divisions;  somewhat  over  one-tenth,  or  11.2%,  in  the 
New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  divisions;  somewhat 
less  than  one-tenth,  or  9.4%,  in  the  South  Atlantic  di- 
vision; and  5.4%  in  the  two  Western  divisions— the 
Mountain  and  Pacific. 

The  distribution  of  chickens  among  the  several  geo- 
graphic divisions  naturally  corresponds  very  closely 
to  the  distribution  of  the  total  number  of  fowls,  since 
chickens  constitute  much  the  greater  proportion  of  all 
fowls.  In  the  case  of  the  other  classes  of  fowls,  the 
two  North  Central  divisions  have  a  somewhat  smaller 
proportion  of  the  total  for  the  country  than  in  the  case 


248 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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250  POULTRY  STATISTICS 

of  chickens;  of  turkeys,  41.6%  were  reported  from  these 
two  divisions;  of  ducks,  46.6%;  and  of  geese,  only  36.1%. 
The  two  South  Central  divisions  combined  had  44.5%  of 
the  total  number  of  geese,  a  very  much  larger  percentage 
than  in  the  case  of  chickens. 

AVERAGE  VALUE  PER  FOWL   OF  ALL  FOWLS  IN 
THE   UNITED   STATES 

The  preceding  table  from  the  1910  census  shows 
the  average  value  of  fowls  on  farms  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  case  of  chickens,  turkeys,  and  ducks, 
the  average  values  in  1910  were  lowest  in  the  West 
and  South  Central  divisions,  and  the  highest  in  New 
England.  New  England  also  shows  the  highest  average 
value  for  geese,  and  the  lowest  is  in  the  East  South 
Central  division.  The  average  value  of  fowls  of  all 
classes  combined  shows  a  marked  increase  from  1900  to 
1910  in  every  geographical  division  of  the  United  States. 


PRODUCTION  OF  POULTRY  AND  EGGS  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

PRODUCTION  ON  FARMS  ACCORDING  TO  CENSUS 

As  given  by  the  1910  census,  the  production  of  poultry 
and  eggs  on  farms  in  the  United  States  in  1909  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  Special  attention 
is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  statistics  in  this  table 
include  only  the  poultry  and  eggs  produced  on  farms 
in  1909,  the  value  of  poultry  at  any  particular  date  not 
being  considered;  and  special  attention  is  also  called 
to  the  fact  that  the  production  on  farms  only  was  taken, 
as  no  enumeration  was  provided  by  law  for  cities,  towns, 
or  villages. 

Increase  in  Value  of  Poultry  and  Eggs.— The  total 
number  of  farms  reporting  fowls  raised  in  1909  was 
5,655,754,  or  88.9%  of  all  farms  in  the  United  States;  and 
the  number  of  such  fowls  was  488,468,354,  or  an  average 


POULTRY  STATISTICS  251 

of  86.4  fowls  per  farm.  No  report  was  published  in  1900 
showing  the  number  of  farms  reporting  or  the  number 
of  fowls  raised  in  1899,  but  the  total  value  was  given  as 
$136,830,152,  as  against  a  value  in  1909  of  $202,506,272.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  value  of  poultry  produced  in 
1  yr.  shows  an  increase  during  the  decade  of  over 
$65,500,000,  or  48.0%. 

The  last  census  shows  that  in  1909  there  were  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  1,591,311,371  doz.  eggs, 
valued  at  $306,688,960.  The  production  in  1899  was  1,- 
293,662,433  doz.  eggs,  and  the  value  was  $144,240,541. 
While  the  production  of  eggs  during  the  10  yr,  in- 
creased but  23.0%,  the  value  more  than  doubled,  the 
exact  amount  of  gain  being  $162,448,419,  or  112.6%. 

Production  of  Poultry  and  Eggs  by  Divisions.— Of  the 
nine  main  geographic  divisions  into  which  the  census 
divides  the  country,  the  East  and  West  North  Central 
divisions  combined  reported  over  46.3%  of  all  poultry, 
and  52.7%  of  the  eggs  produced  in  1909.  The  latter 
division  ranks  first,  with  a  total  of  123,853,667  fowls 
raised,  having  a  value  of  $52,337,180.  The  eggs  produced 
in  this  division  amounted  to  446,336,192  doz.,  valued  at 
$77,493,327.  The  average  value  per  fowl  was  42c.,  and 
the  average  value  per  dozen  of  eggs  was  17c. 

The  East  North  Central  division  raised  102,496,192 
fowls  in  1909,  valued  at  $47,972,887.  The  average  value 
per  fowl  was  47c.  During  the  same  year  392,304,118  doz. 
eggs  were  produced,  with  a  total  value  of  $75,237,900,  or 
an  average  value  per  dozen  of  19c. 

The  three  Southern  divisions,  comprising  the  South 
Atlantic,  the  East,  and  the  West  South  Central,  to- 
gether reported  over  39%  of  all  poultry  raised  in  1909. 
Of  these  the  South  Atlantic  produced  the  greatest  num- 
ber, 70,792,154,  having  a  total  value  of  $24,413,963,  or  an 
average  of  35c.  per  fowl.  In  the  same  year  there  were 
produced  in  this  division  136,073,767  doz.  eggs,  with  a 
total  value  of  $26,545,679,  or  an  average  of  20c.  per  doz. 

The  West  South  Central  division  is  fifth  in  rank  in 
the  production  of  poultry  and  third  in  that  of  eggs,  but 


252 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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254 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 

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POULTRY  STATISTICS  255 

the  Middle  Atlantic  division  reports  a  higher  total  value 
of  eggs  than  any  of  the  southern  divisions.  In  the 
former,  the  number  of  fowls  raised  was  59,066,127,  valued 
at  $17,681,375.  The  eggs  produced  amounted  to  165,557,865 
doz.,  and  the  value  to  $26,395,765.  The  average  value  per 
fowl  was  30c. ;  and  of  eggs,  16c.  per  doz. 

The  poultry  production  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  division, 
36,313,031  fowls,  was  valued  at  $21,527,077,  or  an  average 
of  59c.  per  fowl;  and  the  161,921,598  doz.  eggs  produced 
were  valued  at  $37,507,552,  or  an  average  of  23c.  per  doz. 

Production  of  Poultry  and  Eggs  by  States.— The  pro- 
duction of  fowls  and  eggs  on  farms  by  states  during 
1909  is  shown  in  the  table. 

Seven  states  in  the  country  raised  over  20,000,000  fowls 
in  1909,  namely:  Illinois,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Texas, 
Kansas,  Ohio,  and  Indiana,  their  combined  production 
comprising  over  39%  of  the  poultry  produced  in  the 
United  States.  Only  four  states,  however,  reported  a 
production  of  over  100,000,000  doz.  eggs:  Missouri,  Iowa, 
Ohio,  and  Illinois,  their  combined  product  representing 
over  26%  of  the  total. 

Illinois  raised  32,352,888  fowls  in  1909,  with  a  total 
value  of  $15,404,028,  an  average  of  48c.  per  fowl.  The 
production  of  eggs  amounted  to  100,119,418  doz.,  valued 
at  $18,940,454,  an  average  value  of  19c.  per  doz. 

The  production  of  poultry  in  Missouri  amounted  to 
31,913,210  fowls,  valued  at  $14,572,585,  or  an  average  of 
46c.  per  fowl.  This  state  reported  a  production  c/ 
111,816,693  doz.  eggs,  having  a  total  value  of  $19,345,602 
or  an  average  value  of  17c.  per  doz. 

Iowa  with  a  production  of  29,990,147  fowls,  ranks  third 
among  the  states.  The  total  value  of  its  poultry  was 
$13,914,985,  or  an  average  of  46c.  per  fowl.  A  total  of 
109,760,487  doz.  eggs  were  produced  in  1909,  valued  at 
$19,235,600,  or  an  average  of  18c.  per  doz. 

The  23,433,005  fowls  raised  in  Ohio  were  valued  at 
$10,997,633,  the  average  value  per,  fowl  amounting  to  47c. 
This  state  produced  100,889,599  doz.  eggs,  having  a  total 
value  of  $19,748,658,  or  an  average  value  of  20c.  per  doz. 


256 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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#8  POULTRY  STATISTICS 

EGG    PRODUCTION    AS    INDICATED    BY    MARKET 
RECEIPTS 

According  to  the  census  figures,  the  production  of 
eggs  increased  23%  from  1899  to  1909;  but  the  commercial 
movement  shows  a  much  greater  increase.  Seven  cities 
combined  (New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cin- 
cinnati, Milwaukee,  and  San  Francisco),  as  shown  in 
the  preceding  table,  received  about  369  million  doz. 
eggs  in  1909,  an  increase  of  70%  over  their  receipts  in 
1899.  Population  had  increased  between  1900  and  1910 
about  21%  in  the  United  States,  but  31%  in  the  seven 
cities  named  above.  The  receipts  at  these  seven  cities 
in  1909  were  equivalent  to  about  23%  of  the  production 
as  reported  by  the  census,  as  compared  with  16%  in  1899. 

MONTHLY  RATE  OF  EGG  PRODUCTION  AND  MAR- 
KETING AND  VARIATIONS  IN  PRICES 

Monthly  Rate  of  Egg  Production.— As  shown  in  the 
following  table,  the  production  of  eggs  varies  con- 
siderably from  month  to  month.  A  record  made  from  a 
large  number  of  flocks  in  the  past  several  years,  cov- 
ering various  portions  of  the  United  States,  shows  that 
for  every  1,000  eggs  produced  in  a  year  approximately 
66  are  laid  in  Jan.,  71  in  Feb.,  124  in  Mar.,  134  in 
Apr.,  133  in  May,  107  in  June,  96  in  July,  86  in  Aug., 
62  in  Sept.,  42  in  Oct.,  31  in  Nov.,  and  48  in  Dec.  A 
good  laying  hen  ought  to  produce  200  eggs  a  year,  but 
the  average  run  of  hens  do  not  produce  much,  if  any, 
more  than  100  a  year. 

Monthly  Rate  of  Marketing  of  Eggs.— For  every  1,000 
eggs  marketed  (based  upon  receipts  at  New  York,  St. 
Louis,  and  Milwaukee  in  the  last  10  yr.)  approxi- 
mately 33  are  marketed  in  Jan.,  47  in  Feb.,  128  in 
Mar.,  168  in  Apr.,  153  in  May,  119  in  June,  87  in  July, 
76  in  Aug.,  64  in  Sept.,  53  in  Oct.,  39  in  Nov.,  and  33 
in  Dec. 

Variations  in  Prices  of  Eggs.— If  the  sum  of  the 
monthly  index  figures  of  prices  (average  prices  of  fresh 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


259 


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260  POULTRY  STATISTICS 

eggs  at  12  cities,  1902-1911)  for  the  year  is  represented  by 
1,000,  the  index  price  will  be  approximately  105  for  Jan.,, 
89  for  Feb.,  71  for  Mar.,  66  for  Apr.,  65  for  May,  64  for 
June,  67  for  July,  75  for  Aug.,  84  for  Sept.,  94  for  Oct., 
107  for  Nov.,  and  113  for  Dec. 

Letting  100  represent  the  average  price  paid  to  farmers 
of  the  United  States  in  the  month  when  prices  are  low- 
est, the  average  on  the  first  of  each  month  in  the  last 
3  yr.  was  180  on  Jan.  1,  153  on  Feb.  1,  118  on 
Mar.  1,  100  on  Apr.  1,  102  on  May  1,  102  on  June  1, 
101  on  July  1,  104  on  Aug.  1,  113  on  Sept.  1,  128  on 
Oct.  1,  146  on  Nov.  1,  and  171  on  Dec.  1.  In  quality 
country-shipped  eggs  are  frequently  freshest  in  spring 
when  prices  decline  rapidly  and  poorest  in  late  summer 
and  fall  when  prices  tend  upwards,  causing  a  disposition 
to  hold. 

In  Jan.,  1910,  and  again  in  June,  1910,  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  made  an  investigation 
through  its  agents,  in  63  cities  throughout  the  United 
States,  concerning  the  price  which  retail  dealers  were 
paying  for  eggs  and  the  price  which  consumers  were 
paying  for  fresh  eggs;  at  the  same  time  inquiries  were 
made  through  correspondence  with  crop  reporters  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics  adjacent  to  these  cities  concerning 
the  prices  received  by  producers.  From  the  reports  re- 
ceived it  appears  that  in  Juner  1910,  consumers  paid  an 
average  of  24c.  per  doz. ;  retail  dealers  paid  19.8c.,  and 
near-by  producers  received  18.7c;  in  Jan.,  1910,  con- 
sumers paid  38.1c.,  retailers  paid  32c.,  and  near-by 
producers  received  30. 4c.  The  average  price  to  producers 
for  the  entire  United  States  in  the  middle  of  June,  1910, 
was  about  18.3c.,  and  in  the  last  week  of  Jan.,  1910, 
about  29c. 

Influence  of  Cold  Storage  on  Egg  Prices.— Cold  storage 
of  eggs  has  developed  into  an  important  trade  factor 
in  the  last  15  yr.  approximately.  It  is  generally  as- 
sumed that  its  influence  is  toward  a  leveling  of  prices; 
that  is,  tending  to  raise  prices  of  eggs  in  the  spring, 
when  they  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  and  to  keep  down 


POULTRY  STATISTICS  261 

the  price  in  winter  when  the  natural  supply  is  small 
and  prices  high.  An  examination  of  egg  quotations  in 
the  New  York  market  in  the  last  30  yr.,  dividing 
them  into  two  periods  of  15  yr.  each,  shows  that  for 
the  grade  classed  as  "State"  the  range  in  the  more 
recent  period  was  14.8c.  per  doz.  (i.  e.,  from  31. 3c., 
the  average  Dec.  price,  to  16.5c.,  the  average  Apr. 
price);  while  in  the  earlier  period  the  difference  was 
only  I2.8c.  (from  27.9c.,  the  average  Dec.  price,  to  15.1c., 
the  Apr.  price),  prices  being  highest  in  Dec.  and  lowest 
in  April.  If  the  grade  called  "Westerns,"  is  selected, 
it  is  found  that  the  range  in  price  in  the  recent  period 
is  11. 5c.  (26.5c.  in  Dec.,  15c.  in  Apr.),  whereas  in  the 
earlier  period  the  range  was  11.9c.  (26.6c.  in  Dec.,  14.7c. 
in  Apr.).  If  an  examination  is  made  of  the  Cincin- 
nati quotations  for  30  yr.,  divided  likewise  into  two 
periods  of  15  yr.  each,  the  range  in  the  recent  period 
is  12.1c.  (from  24.9c.,  the  highest  monthly  average,  to 
12.8c.,  the  lowest),  whereas  in  the  earlier  period  the 
range  was  only  lie.  (from  21. 8c.  to  10.8c).  It  does  not 
appear  from  these  figures  that  there  has  been  a  marked 
leveling  or  narrowing  of  prices  between  the  two  periods. 
If  the  statistics  of  movement,  however,  be  examined,  it 
is  found  that  relatively  more  eggs  are  marketed  in  the 
spring  months  in  proportion  to  the  total  yearly  market- 
ings in  recent  years  than  formerly.  The  receipts  of 
eggs  at  New  York  during  Mar.,  Apr.,  and  May  for 
the  15  yr.  1896-1910  were  about  three  times  greater 
than  similar  receipts  in  Nov.,  Dec.,  and  Jan.;  whereas 
for  the  preceding  15-yr.  period  a  similar  comparison 
shows  the  receipts  in  Mar.,  Apr.,  and  May  only  two 
and  two-tenths  times  larger  than  in  the  corresponding 
Nov.,  Dec.,  and  Jan.  Coincident  with  the  development 
of  the  cold-storage  business  has  been  increasing  fa- 
cilities for  transporting  eggs  long  distances,  thus  broad- 
ening the  sources  of  supply  of  cold-storage  centers;  large 
quantities  of  eggs  are  now  shipped  from  Kansas  and 
other  western  points  to  New  York,  and  this  has  probably 
resulted  in  offsetting  the  expected  tendency  of  cold 


262 


POULTRY  STATISTICS 


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POULTRY  STATISTICS  267 


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268  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

storage  to  narrow  the  range  of  prices.  If  monthly 
prices  could  be  readily  obtained  from  a  number  of  in- 
terior western  and  southern  points  for  the  last  30  yr. 
probably  a  narrower  range  between  high  prices  and  low 
prices  would  be  found. 

Variations  in  Wholesale  Prices  of  Eggs.— The  whole- 
sale prices  of  eggs  per  dozen  between  1896-1911  are 
shown  in  the  table  on  pages  262-265. 

Variation  in  Average  Price  of  Eggs  Received  by 
Farmers. — The  variation  in  the  average  price  of  eggs 
received  by  farmers  of  the  different  states  on  the  first 
of  each  month  of  1911  is  shown  in  the  preceding  table. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 
USED  BY  POULTRYMEN 

A  clear  understanding  of  the  meaning  of  the  technical 
terms  used  in  the  poultry  world  is  necessary  before 
any  person  can  judge  fowls  according  to  Standard  re- 
quirements or  select  them  for  breeding  purposes  or  the 
show  pen  or  even  converse  intelligently  on  the  subject 
of  poultry. 

In  order  to  impart  a  clear  understanding  of  the  terms 
applied  to  the  different  parts  of  a  fowl,  a  profile  view 
of  one  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  with  the  different  parts 
numbered.  Following  this  will  be  found  a  list  of  the 
names  of  the  numbered  parts.  Farther  on  is  a  list  of 
technical  terms  and  expressions  used  by  poultrymen. 
Some  of  the  terms  are  peculiar  to  England  and  some  to 
certain  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  the  meaning  of 
each  is  fully  explained  and  many  are  made  clear  by 
illustrations 

Abdomen. — The  part  of  the  body  of  a  fowl  that  contains 
the  viscera.  See  32,  Fig.  1. 

Albino. — A  fowl  that  is  pure  white  in  all  parts  except 
the  eyes,  due  to  the  absence  of  coloring  pigment;  a 
sport  from  black  or  colored  fowls. 


FIG.  1 


NAMES  OF  NUMBERED  PARTS 

i,  Crest 

21,  Fourth  toe 

2,  Comb 

22,  Fifth  toe 

5,  Eye 

23,  Spur 

4,  Feathers  covering  the 

24,  Foot 

ear 

25,  Shank   and  toe  feath- 

5. Ear   lobe 

ering 

6,  Muff 

26,  Back 

7,  Wattles 

27,  Saddle 

8,  Beard 

28,  Sickles 

o,  Beak 

20,  Lesser  sickles 

jo,  Face 

30,  Tail  coverts 

n,  Hackle 

31,  Main  tail 

12,  Neck 

32,  Abdomen 

13,  Breast 
14,  Breastbone,  or  keel 

33,  Wing  bow 
34,  Shoulder 

15,  Thigh 
16,  Vulture  hock 
17,  Hock  joint 

35,  Wing  bar 
36,  Wing  bay,  or  second- 
ary feathers 

18,  Shank 

37,  Primary,      or      flight, 

/9,  Third  toe 

feathers 

20,  Middle  toe 

3#,  Primary  coverts 

270 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


FIG.  2 


Amateur.— A  person  not  well  informed  about  the  art  of 
poultry  raising;  a  beginner;  a  novice. 

Antler   Comb. — A   comb    composed   of   two    small    prongs 
somewhat    resembling    antlers;     a    V-shaped    comb;     com- 
mon in  Polish,  La  Fleche,  and  some 
strains  of  Houdans.     Fig.  2. 
A.  O.  C. — Any  other  color. 
A.  O.  V. — Any  other  variety. 
Atavism. — Recurrence     to     an     an- 
cestral   type    or    to    a    deformity    or 
disease    after    its    disappearance    for 
several  generations;  reversion. 

Band. — (1)  A  stripe  or  marking 
of  any  kind  at  the  end  of  or  across 
a  feather.  (2)  A  band  of  metal  or 
other  material,  usually  stamped  with  numbers  or  letters,  or 
colored,  for  attaching  to  the  shank  of  a  fowl  so  that  it 
can  be  identified. 

Bantam.— A  dwarf,  or  pigmy,  fowl,  usually  about  one- 
fifth  the  size  of  a  large  fowl  of  the  variety  to  which  it 
corresponds  in  every  particular  except  size. 

Barb. — One  of  the  side  branches  of  a  feather*  which 
collectively  make  up  the  web  and  fluff.  See  feather. 

Barring. — Bands  of  alternate  colors  that 
extend  across  a  feather.  Fig.  3. 

Barred  to  the  Skin. — An  expression  ap- 
plied to  fowls  whose  feathers  are  barred 
from  the  tip  to  the  end  of  the  fluff,  as  in 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 

Bay. — A  reddish-brown  color,  approach- 
ing chestnut;  also  used  to  designate  eyes  in 
fowls  that  have  an  approach  to  blood-red 
color. 

Beak.— As  used  by  poultrymen,  the  beak 
is  the  bony  formation  extending  from  the 
front  of  the  head  of  chickens  and  turkeys; 
it  consists  of  the  upper  and  lower  mandibles.  See  9, 
Fig.  1.  The  corresponding  part  of  water  fowls  is  called 
the  bill. 


FIG.  3 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


271 


FIG.  4 


Bean. — A  growth,  resembling  a  thumbnail,  on  the  point 
of  the  upper  mandible  of  the  bill  of  a  duck,  as  shown  at 
a,  Fig.  4.  A  like  growth  of  a 
smaller  size  is  found  on  the  bill  of 
a  goose. 

Beard. — (1)  A  tuft  of  feathers 
under  the  beak  and  about  the  throat 
of  such  fowls  as  Polish,  Houdans, 
etc.  See  8,  Fig.  1.  (2)  A  tuft  of 
hair  growing  on  the  breast  of  turkeys. 

Beefy.— A  term  applied  to  coarse,  overgrown  combs; 
such  combs  are  more  commonly  found  on  Mediterranean 
fowls  than  on  those  of  other  varieties. 

Beetle  Brows. — See  brows. 

Bib. — The  English  name  for  beard. 

Bill. — The  mandibles  of  water  fowls,  which  correspond 
to  the  beak  in  other  domestic  fowls. 

Bird.— Fowl  was  the  term  formerly  applied  to  all 
winged  creatures;  modern  usage  restricts  the  name  fowl 
to  the  larger  domesticated  fowls  and  designates  the 
smaller  wild  fowls  as  birds.  However,  the  term  bird 
is  frequently  indiscriminatingly  used  instead  of  the 
term  fowl. 

Blade. — The  rear  part  of  a  single  comb,  generally  called 
the  heel.  See  b,  Fig.  25. 

Blocky.—A  term  applied  to  a  fowl  that  is  of  heavy  and 
square  build;  said  of  a  fowl  that  is  broad,  or  wide, 
between  the  thighs.  Compare  with  cobby,  an  English 
term  that  expresses  the  same  meaning. 

Bloom.— The  gloss,  sheen,  or  finish  on  the  plumage  of 
fowls. 

Body. — Fanciers  usually  apply  the  term  body  to  the 
trunk  of  a  fowl  only. 

Booted. — Fowls  that  are  feathered  on  the  shanks  and 
toes  are  said  to  be  booted. 

Bouquet  Crest.— A  crest  that  stands  up  from  the  head 
and  to  some  extent  resembles  a  bouquet  of  flowers; 
found  on  crested  ducks.  At  one  time,  a  bad  defect  in 
Polish  fowls. 


272 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Brassiness. — A  term  applied  to  a  yellow  or  yellowish 
tint  commonly  found  in  the  feathers  of  white  fowls  and 
sometimes  in  the  feathers  of  dark-plumaged  fowls. 

Breast. — (1)  A  term  applied  to  that  part  of  the  front  of 
the  body  of  live  fowls  that  extends  from  the  throat  to 
the  point  of  the  breastbone.  See  13,  Fig.  1.  (2)  The  term 
is  applied  also  to  the  meat  on  both  sides  of  the  breast- 
bone of  fowls  prepared  for  the  table. 

Breed. — A  family  of  fowls  all  of  which  are  of  the  same 
distinctive  shape.  A  breed  may  include  a  number  of 
varieties,  the  fowls  of  all  the  varieties  having  the  same 
shape  but  being  distinguished  by  different  plumage 
colors  and  markings. 

Breeding  Down. — A  term  applied  to  the  process  of 
producing  small,  or  bantam,  fowls  from  larger  fowls  by 
selecting  and  breeding  the  smallest  fowls  obtainable — a 
process  usually  involving  breeding  through  a  number  of 
generations. 

Brick  Color.— A  reddish-brown  color  occasionally  found 
on  fowls  of  black-red  varieties. 
Broken  Colored. — See  mottled  and  spangled. 
Brood.— A  number  of  chick's  that  are  mothered  by  one 
hen  or  kept  in  one  brooder. 

Broody. — When  a  hen  shows  a  desire  to  sit,  that  is,  to 
hatch  eggs,  she  is  said  to  be  broody. 
Brows.— The  projection  of  the  skull  over  the  eyes  of  a 
fowl,    as   in    Asiatic    and    Malay    fowls; 
termed  beetle  brows  in  England.    Fig.  5. 
Cap. — The  upper  part  of  a  fowl's  skull 
or  comb;  a  term  used  in  England. 

Cape. — The  feathers  between  the 
shoulders  and  about  the  neck  under- 
neath the  hackle. 

Capon. — A  castrated  cock  or  cockerel; 
that  is,  a  male  from  which  the  reproductive  organs  have 
been  removed;  a  female  from  which  the  reproductive  or- 
gans have  been  removed  is  called  a  poulard. 

Carriage. — The  general  appearance,  pose,  or  bearing  of  a 
fowl;  the  way  in  which  a  fowl  carries  itself  when  walking. 


FIG.  5 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


273 


^~N 


S 


Caruncles. — Irregular  growths  of  flesh  such  as  occur  on 
the  head  and  neck  of  turkeys  and  Muscovy  ducks.  Fig.  6. 

Carunculated.— Covered  with  carun- 
cles. 

Castrate. — To  remove  the  testicles,  the 
organs  of  reproduction,  from  a  male 
fowl. 

Cavernous. — Said  of  nostrils  that  are 
prominent  and  deeply  hollowed.  Such 
nostrils  are  found  on  crested  fowls. 
Fig.  7. 

Chain  Armor. — Faulty  lacing  on  the 
claret-colored  breast  of  a  Rouen  drake. 

Chick.— One  of  the  newly  hatched  young  of  fowls  or 
birds. 

Chicken. — Specifically,  a  fowl  less  than  1  yr.  old;   com- 
monly, a  fowl  of  any  age. 

Cinnamon      Color. — A     dark     reddish 
buff,    formerly    admissible    on    one    va- 
}  riety  of  Cochins. 

Claret  Color.— Descriptive  of  the  breast 
color  of  a  Rouen  drake. 

Clean  Legged. — A  term  used  in  de- 
scribing a  fowl  that  has  no  feathers  on 
its  shanks  or  toes. 

Close  Feathered. — See  tight  feathered. 
Cloudy. — A  term  applied  to  plumage  that  has  irregular 
markings.     See  mossiness. 

Clutch.— -The  number  of  eggs  a  domestic  fowl  incubates, 
or  sits  on,  at  one  time,  usually  from  11  to  15.  See 
sitting. 

Coat. — The  plumage  of  a  fowl  taken  as  a  whole. 
Cob. — A  male  swan. 

Cobby. — A  term   applied   in   England  to   a   fowl   that   is 
thick  set,  heavily  built,  and  round  in  form.      See  blocky. 
Cock. — A  male   fowl  more  than    1   yr.   old;   the   term  is 
commonly  applied  to  pit  game  cocks  of  any  age. 

Cockerel.— A  male  fowl  less  than  1  yr.  old.  The  practice 
in  the  show  room  is  to  allow  males  to  be  shown  as 


FIG.  7 


274 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


cockerels    during    the    entire    show    season    that    follows 
their    hatching.      Compare    with    pullet. 

Cockerel  Bred. — Bred  in  line  from  a  mating  made  ex- 
pressly for  producing  cockerels  for  exhibition.  Both 
males  and  females  from  such  matings  are  said  to  be 
cockerel  bred.  Compare  with  pullet  bred. 

Collar. — A  white  ring  around  the  neck,  as  in  Rouen 
ducks  and  in  pheasants. 

Color. — A  term  applied  to  any  one  of  the  many  hues 
that  may  be  found  on  the  feathers  or  on  any  other  part 
of  the  body  of  a  fowl.  This  term  is  used  also  in 
describing  the  coloring  of  the  entire  plumage.  A  fowl 
is  said  to  have  good  color  when  each  of  its  colors  is 
of  the  proper  tint  and  is  found  in  its  proper  place,  and 
to  have  bad  color  when  the  reverse  is  true. 

Comb. — The  fleshy  growth  on  the 
top  of  the  head  of  a  fowl.  See  2, 
Fig.  1,  and  Figs.  2,  5,  16,  20,  22,  25, 
and  30. 

Comb  Over. — An  expression  for 
lopped  comb;  used  in  England. 
Figs.  8  and  24. 

Comparison  Judging.  —  Judging 
fowls  by  comparing  them  with  one 
another,  and  without  applying  a 
score  card. 

Concave    Sweep. — The    continuous 

curve  of  the  back  from  the  shoulder  to  the  tail;  required 
in  some  breeds. 

Condition.— The  state  of  the  health  and  plumage  of  a 
fowl;  sometimes  applied  only  to  the  finish,  or  appear- 
ance, of  the  plumage. 

Conditioning. — The  process  of  preparing  a  fowl  for  the 
show  room. 

Coverts.— Feathers  that  grow  about  the  tail;  also  the 
secondary,  quill  feathers.  See  30  and  38,  Fig.  1,  and 
wing  and  tail  coverts  and  hangers. 

Cradle  Comb.— A  term  formerly  applied  to  the  Wyan- 
dotte  comb;  at  present  little  used.  Same  as  rocker  comb. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


275 


Creaminess. — A  term  descriptive  of  white  feathers  that 
are  tinged  with  a  slight  yellow  or  cream  color. 

Crest.—  A  tuft  of  feathers  on  top  of  the  head.  Figs. 
9  and  16. 

Crop. — An  enlarged  part  of  the  gul' 
let,  or  pouch,  in  which  food  is  stored 
and  softened  prior  to  passing  into  the 
gizzard. 

Crop  Bound. — A  term  applied  to  an 
unnatural  condition  of  the  crop,  in 
which  that  organ  is  stopped  up  and 
food  is  prevented  from  passing 
through  it.  FlG- 

Cross. — A  mating  of  fowls  of  different  breeds. 

Cross-Bred. — The  offspring  from  two  fowls  of  different 
breeds;  as  from  mating  a  Plymouth  Rock  and  a  Rhode 
Island  Red. 

Curl  Feather. — One  of  the  set  of  curled  feathers  near 
the  base  of  the  back  of  a  male  duck. 

Curve. — Any  arched  or  concave  line  on  the  body  of  a 
fowl,  such  as  the  curve  of  the  back,  the  curve  formed  by 
the  flowing  tail  feathers,  or  the  arched  shape  of  the 
neck  in  water  fowjs. 

Cushion. — A  raised  mass  of  plumage  due  to  an  excessive 
development  of  soft  feathers  about  the  tail  of  Cochins 
and  some  other  fowls. 

Cushion  Comb. — The  name  applied  in  England  to  the 
comb  of  the  Silky;  a  circular  cushion  of  flesh  with  a 
number  of  small  protuberances  on  it.  Same  as  straw- 
berry comb. 

Cut.— A  deduction  made  from  the  score  of  a  fowl;  as 
a  cut  of  2  points. 

Cygnet. — A   young   swan. 

Daiv  Eyed. — A  term  used  at  one  time  to  describe  game 
fowls  that  had  peculiar  eyes  resembling  those  of  a 
jackdaw,  which  were  of  a  pearl  color;  pigeons  with  eyes 
of  the  same  kind  are  said  to  be  pearl  eyed. 

Deaf-Ear.— The  ear  lobe. 

Debarred. — Barred  from  competition. 


276 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Deep  Bodied. — Said  of  fowls  that  have  a  good  depth 
of  body  from  the  top  of  the  back  to  the  lower  side  of 
the  breastbone. 

Defect.— Any  blemish,  imperfection,  fault,  or  lack  of 
some  feature  or  quality. 

Dewlap.— A  growth  of  loose  skin  below  the  beak  or 
bill,  as  in  Brahmas  and  water  fowls.  Fig.  5. 

Diamond. — An  expression  formerly  used  in  place  of 
wing  bay.  See  36,  Fig.  1. 

Dished.— When  hollows  or  depressions  appear  in  the  bill 
of  a  water  fowl,  it  is  said  to  be  dished.     See  b,  Fig.  4. 
Disqualification. — A  defect  that  will  debar  a  fowl  from 
competition. 

Disqualified.— Condemned;    unfit    for   exhibition. 
Double    Comb.— A    term    formerly    applied    to    all    combs 
except  the  single  comb. 

Double  Lacing. — A  double  ring  or  penciling  about  the 
outer  edge  of  a  feather.  Fig.  10.  See  sup- 
plementary lacing. 

Double  Mating. — A  system  of  mating  in 
which  males  fit  for  exhibition  are  produced 
from  one  pair  of  breeding  fowls,  and  fe- 
males fit  for  exhibition  are  produced  from 
another  pair. 

Down. — (1)    The  first  downy  covering  of 
young  chicks.     (2)   The  soft  cottonlike  part 
of  a  feather  below  the  web.     See  b,  Fig.  12. 
(3)    A   mosslike    growth   between   the   toes. 
FIG.  10  Drake.— A  male  duck. 

Dubbing. — The  cutting  off  of  the  comb,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes  of  game  fowls. 

Duck. — A  species  of  water  fowl,  including  both  sexes; 
also,  a  female  of  the  species,  as  distinguished  from  the 
male. 

Duckling. — A  young  duck. 
Duck  Fo0f.-^See  web  foot. 

Duck  Footed. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  duck  footed  when 
the  back  toe  is  carried  close  to  the  other  toes,  instead 
of  being  well  spread  out  behind.  Fig.  11. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


277 


Ear  Lobe.— The  fleshy  growth  below  the  ear;  this  may 
be  red,  white,  or  other  color,  according  to  the  variety. 
Same  as  deaf-ear.  See  5,  Fig.  1. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — Eggs  that  are 
suitable  for  incubation. 

Exhibition  Fowls. — A  fowl  suitable 
for  exhibition  in  a  show  room. 

Face. — On  a  fowl,  the  part  of  the 
head  about  the  eyes  that  is  bare  of 
feathers. 

Faking. — A  term  equivalent  in  mean- 
ing to  deceiving;   it  is  in  frequent  use 
by  poultrymen.     Faking  consists  in  re- 
moving   or    dyeing    objectionable     feathers,    in    coloring 
shanks    and    feet,    in    removing    side    sprigs,    or    in    the 
use    of   other   unfair   means    to   win    a    prize    in    a    show 
room. 

Fancier.— A  breeder  of  poultry,  pigeons,  or  pet  stock. 
Fancy. — A  lax  term  for  fanciers  collectively. 
Feather. — One  of  the  appendages  peculiar  to  and  grow- 
ing   out   of   the    skin   of   a   fowl    or   a    bird,    collectively 
forming   the   plumage.     Fig.    12.     A 
feather    is    commonly    composed    of    the 
following    principal    parts:      web    a,    in 
which    the    barbs    are    stuck    together, 
forming     a     thin,     smooth     sheet;     the 
fluff,  or  down  b,  in  which  the  barbs  are 
not  united;   the   shaft,   quill,   or  barrel, 
which    is    composed    of    a   lower    hollow 
and  tubular  part  c,   and  an  upper  part 
d,  which  is  filled  with  pith. 

Feather    Cell. — The    cell    in    the    body 
from  which  a  feather  grows. 

Feather   Legged. — Said    of   fowls    that 
have   feathers   growing  on   the   sides   of 
the  shanks  and  toes;  booted.     See  25,  Fig.  1. 

Fillers.— The    small    feathers    that    grow    between    the 
main  tail  feathers. 
Finish. — Gloss  on  plumage. 


FIG. 


278  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

First-Cross  Fowls.— Fowls  resulting  from  the  first  cross- 
ing of  standard-bred  males  and  females  of  different 
breeds. 

Flat  Shin.— A  flat  part  on   the   shank  of  a   game  fowl. 

Flight  Coverts. — Short  feathers  that  grow  at  the  base 
of  the  flight  feathers  and  partly  cover  them.  See  38, 
Fig.  1. 

Flights,  or  Flight  Feathers. — The  primary  feathers  on 
the  wing  of  a  fowl.  See  37,  Fig.  1. 

Flow. — Said  of  feathers  that  hang  loosely  or  sweep 
ingly. 

Fluff. — (1)  The  downy  or  lower  part  of  a  feather;  see 
b,  Fig.  12.  (2)  The  profuse  soft  feathering  about  the 
thighs  and  abdomen.  See  32,  Fig.  1. 

Fluffing. — The  act  of  bending  or  breaking  the  shafts 
and  quills  of  the  feathers  in  the  fluff,  cushion,  and  tail 
feathering  of  Asiatic  Bantam  and  other  Asiatic  fowls, 
to  build  them  out  into  unnatural  size.  This  constitutes 
faking. 

Folded  Comb. — A  comb  that  falls  over  to  one  side  and 
folds  back,  forming  a  loop. 

Foreign  Color. — Any  color  found  on  a  fowl  that  is  not 
characteristic  of  or  standard  for  the  variety  to  which 
the  fowl  belongs. 

Form. — As  applied  to  fowls  in  the  show  room,  form 
refers  to  their  condition  and  finish. 

Foul  Feathers. — Feathers  that  are  marked  with  foreign 
color. 

Fowl.— A  domestic  cock,  hen,  cockerel,  or  pullet. 

Foxy. — See  rusty. 

Frizzle  Feathers. — Feathers  that  are  crinkled  or  curled. 

Frosting.— Irregular  markings  or  lacing  of  a  light 
color.  Similar  markings  of  a  dark  color  give  the  appear- 
ance of  mossiness. 

Furnished.— A  fowl  is  said  to  be  furnished  when  it  has 
a  complete  growth  of  tail,  hackle,  and  saddle  plumage, 
and  a  well-developed  comb  and  other  head  points. 

Furnishings. — Same   as   hangers. 

Gaff. — A  steel  spur. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  279 

Gamy. — Like  a  game  fowl;  full  of  fight. 

Gay. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  gay  when  it  has  spangled, 
splashed,  or  colored  plumage  with  an  excessive  amount 
of  white  on  it. 

Gills. — An  improper  name  for  the  wattles. 

Gloss.— The  luster  on  the  surface  of  feathers. 

Gobbler. — A  male  turkey. 

Gray. — A  color  produced  by  a  mixture  of  black  and 
white;  it  is  of  different  shades,  according  to  the  pro- 
portions of  black  and  white,  as  in  the  plumage  of  Dark 
Brahmas  and  Silver-Gray  Dorkings. 

Ground  Color.— In  fowls,  the  main,  or  principal,  color 
in  the  plumage;  for  example,  in  a  Buff  Laced  Polish 
fowl,  the  buff  is  the  ground  color. 

Gullet. — The  opening  through  which  food  passes. 

Gypsy  Color. — Purple  color,  as  found  on  the  face  of  some 
game  fowls;  also  called  mulberry  color. 

Hackle  Feathers.— The  long,  flowing  feathers  that  grow 
on  the  neck  of  a  fowl;  more  plentiful  in  males  than  in 
females.  See  //,  Fig.  1.  See  hackle. 

Hangers. — An  improper  name  for  saddle  feathers. 

Hatch.— (1)  To  produce  young  from,  that  is,  to  cause 
young  to  develop  in  and  come  forth  from  an  egg  by 
either  natural  or  artificial  incubation.  (2)  A  brood 
hatched  at  one  sitting  or  one  incubation. 

Hard  Feathers. — Firm,  close  feathering,  such  as  is  found 
on  game  fowls. 

Hen. — A   mature   female   domestic   fowl. 

Hen  Feathered. — Said  of  a  male  fowl  with  a  tail  like 
a  hen,  as  in  the  males  of  Sebrights  and  some  varieties 
of  game  fowls. 

Hen  Tailed. — Same  as  hen  feathered. 

Henny. — A  term  applied  to  a  male  fowl,  usually  a  game, 
that  has  tail  or  other  plumage  resembling  that  of  a 
hen. 

High-in-Back. — A  term  used  in  England  to  describe 
hump  or  roach  back. 

Hock.— The  joint  between  the  thigh  and  the  shank.  See 
17,  Fig.  I 


280 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


FIG.  13 


Hollowed  Place  in  Comb. — A  depression  in  the  comb  of 
a  fowl;   same  as  a  thumb  mark.     Fig.  24. 
Hood.— Neck  feathers  that  curve  forwards  over  the  head. 
Horn  Comb. — Same  as  antler  comb  and   V  -shaped  comb. 
Horseshoe     Lacing. — Lacing     forming     a 
horseshoe     about     the     tip     of     a     feather. 
Fig.    13. 

Hump  Back. — A  fowl  with  a  hump  back 
is  one  that  has  a  knob,  lump,  or  prominence 
on  the  back. 

Hybrid. — The  offspring  from  two  birds  of 
different  species;  as  from  mating  a  gold- 
finch with  a  canary,  or  a  turkey  with  a 
guinea. 

Ideal. — Of  a  perfection  that  is  seldom 
realized. 

Inbred  Fowl.— An  offspring  from   closely   related  fowls. 
Inbreedin g.— Breeding,    or   following   a   course   of   breed- 
ing, from  nearly  related  fowls. 
Incubate. — See  hatch   and  sit. 

Irregular  Lacing. — Incomplete  or  imperfect  lacing  about 
the  edge  of  a  feather. 

Jaw. — In  a  fowl,  the  jaw  is  that  part 
of  the  head  that  supports  the  upper  and 
lower  mandibles. 

Keel.—(\)  The  lower  edge  of  the 
breastbone.  (2)  The  loose  flesh  and 
feathers  hanging  below  the  breast  in 
ducks  and  other  poultry. 

Knee  Joint. — Same  as  hock  joint.  See 
V,  Fig.  1. 

Knob.—  The  protuberance  on  a  goose 
at  the  juncture  of  the  head  and  the  bill. 

Knock  Kneed. — A  malformation  of  the  legs  of  a  fowl, 
in  which  the  hock  joints  come  close  together  instead  of 
being  well  apart  as  they  should  be.  Fig.  14. 

Lacing. — The  edging  along  the  margin  of  a  feather;  it 
is  usually  darker  in  color  than  the  body  of  the  feather. 
Fig.  15. 


FIG.  14 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


281 


FIG.  15 


FIG.  16 


Leader. — The  spike,  or  heel,  on  a  rose  comb — the  part 
that  extends  to  the  rear.  See  a,  Fig.  22. 

Leaf  Comb.— A  comb  consisting  of  two  small  sections, 
each  shaped  like  'a  leaf.  Fig.  16. 

Leggy. — A  fowl  is  said  to 
be  leggy  when  it  has  too 
great  length  in  legs. 

Leg  and  Toe  Feathering. 
The  feathering  on  both  the 
shanks  and  feet;  booting. 
See  25,  Fig.  1. 

Lesser  Sickles.  —  The 
smaller  tail  feathers  next  to 
the  full,  flowing  sickles.  See 
29.  Fig.  1. 

Line  Breeding. — Breeding,  or  following  a  course  of 
breeding,  from  a  limited  number  of  original  fowls.  In 
line  breeding  the  fowls  mated  are  not  so  closely  related 
as  those  mated  in  inbreeding.  Line  breeding  is  really 
a  modified  form  of  inbreeding. 

Loop.— A  double  fold  in  the  comb,  as  in  a  Minorca 
female. 

Lopped  Comb. — A  comb  that  falls  over  on  either  side. 
Same  as  comb  over.  Figs.  8  and  24. 

Low  Built. — Said   of  a   fowl   that   is   very   short   in   the 
legs  and  hence  carries  its  body  close  to  the  ground. 
Lump  Comb. — Same  as  strawberry  comb. 
Made  Form.— The  form  that  may  be  produced  in  a  fowl 
by  training. 

Main  Tail  Feathers. — The  stiff  feathers  of  the  tail  under 
and  between  the  sickles  and  coverts.  See  31,  Fig.  1. 

Mandibles. — The  horny  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the 
beak  or  bill. 

Marbled. — A  term  used  to  describe  ticked  or  laced 
feathers  on  the  breast  of  Pyle  Game  cocks. 

Markings. — Striping,  lacing,  barring,  or  marks  of  any 
kind  on  the  plumage. 

Mazarine. — Deep-blue  or  purplish  markings  across  a 
black  feather. 


282 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Mealy.— A  term  used  to  describe  plumage  that  should 
be  one  solid  color  but  is  covered  with  irregular  dots  of 
mixed  or  faulty  color. 

Moon. — A  rounded  spot  of  color  tipping  the  feathers 
of  fowls  of  some  varieties. 

Mossiness. — An  effect  produced  by  irregular  dark  mark- 
ings. Fig.  17.  See  frosting. 

Molt. — (1)  To  cast  off  or 
shed  the  feathers  of  fowls. 
(2)  The  act  or  process  of 
molting.  (3)  The  season  or 
period  of  molting. 

Mottled.  —  Marked  with 
spots  or  blotches  of  different 
colors. 

Mulberry  Color.— See  gypsy 
color. 

Muff,   Muffle,    Muffling. — A 
growth  of  feathers  on  either 
side   of   the   head,    usually    seen   on   bearded   fowls,    and 
very  marked  in  Faverolles.     See  6,  Fig.  1. 

Natural  Form. — The  natural  appearance  of  a  fowl  with- 
out  training. 
Non-Sitter.— A  fowl  that  does  not  incubate  eggs. 

Novice. — A  beginner;  an  inexperienced 
person. 

Open  Barring. — Barring  in  which  the  bars 
are  wide  apart.  Fig.  18. 

Open  Lacing. — Narrow  lacing  about  the 
edge  of  a  feather  and  forming  a  ring 
around  a  spot  of  another  color,  giving  the 
feather  the  appearance  of  having  a  large 
open  center.  Fig.  19. 

Overhang. — A    term    used    by    poultrymen 
to  describe  the  overhanging  skull  as  found 
in-  Aseel  Game,  Malay  Game,  and  Brahma 
have    the    same    kind   of    a 


FIG.  17 


FIG.  18 


FIG.  19 


fowls.      Some    pigeons,    also, 
projection  on  the  skull. 


FIG.  20 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  283 

Overlap.—  To  lie  partly  over;  said  of  the  colors  on 
plumage  when  they  meet  on  a  ragged  edge,  giving  the 
appearance  of  one  color  overlapping  another. 

Parti-Colored.— Of  several  colors,  like  the  Light  Brahma 
or  Houdan. 

Pea  Comb.— A  small,  low  comb  divided  lengthwise  into 
three   parts,    and   having   the    appearance   of   three    small 
single  combs  placed  side  by  side,  as  on 
the  Brahma  and  Aseel.     Figs.  5  and  20. 
Pearl  Eyed. — See  daw  eyed. 
Pen. — (1)    An   enclosure.      (2)    A    fe- 
male swan. 

Penciling. — Narrow  lines  or  markings. 
The  term  penciling  is  applied  to  several 
kinds  of  markings  on  poultry:  (1)  The 
bars  on  the  feathers  of  Penciled  Ham- 
burgs.  (2)  The  concentric  lines  that  follow  the  outline  of 
the  feather  in  Dark  Brahmas  and  Partridge  Cochins.  Fig. 
21.  (3)  The  fine  gray  markings  on  Rouen  drakes.  (4) 
The  stippling  as  found  on  Leghorns  and  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game  females. 

Pen  Manners. — The  behavior  of  fowls  in 
pens  in  the  show  room. 

Pen  of  Fowls. — In  the  show  room,  a  pen 
of  one  male  and  four  females. 

Peppered. — Plumage    is    said    to    be    pep- 
pered when  it  is  dotted  with  spots. 

Pile. — The   spelling  used   in   England   for 
Pyle. 

Pinion. — (1)  The  outermost  section  of 
the  wing  of  a  bird,  bearing  the  pinion 
feathers.  (2)  To  cut  off  the  outer  part  of  a  bird's  wing 
that  bears  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  feathers  used 
in  flying,  in  order  to  prevent  flying. 

Pit.— An    enclosed    space    in    which    fowls    are    pitted 
against  each  other;  hence,  a  fighting  place  for  fowls. 
Plumage.— The  feathers  and  down. 

Point.— One  of  the  tapering,  sharp-ended  serrations  of 
the  upper  part  of  a  single  comb.  See  a,  Fig.  25. 


FIG.  21 


284  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Poulard. — A  female  fowl,  usually  a  pullet,  in  which  th 
egg-producing  organs  have  been  destroyed. 

Poult.— A  young  turkey. 

Poultry.— All  domestic  fowls. 

Prepotency.— The  superiority  of  one  parent  over  th 
other  in  transmitting  characters  to  the  offspring;  tha 
is,  in  stamping  its  individuality  on  the  offspring. 

Primaries.— The  flight  feathers.     See  57,  Fig.   1. 

Producer. — A  fowl  that  produces  offspring  better  than 
itself. 

Pullet.— A  female  fowl  less  than  a  year  old.  Show- 
room practice  allows  a  fowl  to  be  exhibited  as  a  pullet 
during  the  entire  show  season  that  follows  the  hatching. 

Pullet  Bred. — Bred  in  line  from  a  mating  made  ex- 
pressly for  producing  pullets  for  exhibition.  Both  males 
and  females  from  such  matings  are  called  pullet  bred. 
Compare  with  cockerel  bred. 

Pure  Bred.— Fowls  that  have  no  alien  blood  in  them 
are  said  to  be  pure  bred. 

Purply.— The  effect  produced  by  purple  bars  across  a 
black  feather. 

Quill.— See  feather,  and  c,  Fig.  12. 

Quill  Bound.— A  condition  in  which  the  feather  is 
retained  in  its  sheath,  instead  of  the  sheath  cracking 
and  falling  off. 

Racy. — A  fowl  that  is  slender,  trim,  active,  alert,  or 
tight  feathered  is  said  to  be  racy. 

Reachy. — Said  of  fowls  that  have  an  upright  carriage 
and  are  tall,  such  as  game  fowls. 

Ribbon. — The  bright-blue  band  across  the  wings  of 
Rouen  and  other  ducks. 

Roach  Back. — A  back  with  a  hump;  same  as  hump 
back. 

Rocker  Comb.— A  term  formerly  applied  to  the  Wyan- 
dotte  comb;  same  as  cradle  comb. 

Rooster. — Common  name  for  a  cock  or  a  cockerel. 

Rose  Comb.— A  broad,  level  comb,  wide  in  front,  taper- 
ing to  a  spike,  or  point,  in  the  rear,  and  covered  on 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


285 


the  top  with  small  projections,  or  points,  as  in  Hamburgs 
and  Rose-Comb  Bantams.     Fig.   22.     At 
a  is  shown  the  spike. 

Rosy  Wings. — Wings  of  Pyle  females, 
which  are  marked  with  salmon  color; 
wings  of  the  same  color  were  formerly 
called  foxy  colored. 

Ruff. — Same  as  muff. 

Rusty  Color.  —  The  reddish-brown 
shadings  on  the  outside  of  the  wings  FIG.  ^ 

of    Black-Breasted    Red    Game    and    Brown    Leghorn    fe- 
males.    In  England,  the  same  shading  is  called  foxy. 

Saddle. — That  portion  of  the  back  of  a  male  fowl 
between  the  middle  of  the  back  and  the  base  of  the  tail. 

Saddle  Feathers.— The  flowing  feathers  growing  from  the 
saddle  of  a  fowl. 

Saddle  Hackles. — The  long,  flowing  feathers  that  grow 
from  the  saddle  of  a  male  and  hang  down  on  both  sides 
of  the  body;  also  called  saddle  hangers  and  saddle 
feathers.  See  27,  Fig.  1. 

Salmon.— A  reddish  or  pinkish  orange  color,  like  that 
found  on  the  breast  of  Red  Pyle  Game  females  and 
Brown  Leghorn  females. 

Scales.— Thin,  horny  growths  covering  the  shanks  and 
feet. 

Scaly  Leg. — A  diseased  condition  of  the  shanks  and 
feet,  caused  by  the  scaly-leg  mite. 

Secondaries. — The  long  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  that 
grow  on  the  second  joint  or  next  to  and  above  the 
primaries.  See  36,  Fig.  1. 

Section.— A  distinctly  defined  part  of  a  standard-bred 
fowl. 

Self-Color. — A    uniform    color. 

Serrated. — Notched   along  the  edge  like  a  saw. 

Serration. — One  of  the  points  of  a  single  comb.  Se\ 
a,  Fig.  25. 

Shaft—  See   feather,   and   d,   Fig.    12. 
Shafty. — A  term  describing  a  dark-colored  feather  witk 
a  light  shaft.     Fig.  23. 


286 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


Shank.— That  part  of  the  leg  between  the  toes  and  the 
hock  joint.     See  18,  Fig.  1. 

Shank  Feathers. — Feathers  growing  on 
the  outside  .edge  of  the  shank.  See  25, 
Fig.  1. 

Shank  Line. — A  line  that  would  be 
formed  by  drawing  a  straight  line  along  the 
rear  edge  of  the  shank  upwards  through  the 
body  of  a  fowl. 

Sheath. — The  covering  over  a  new 
feather;  it  splits  and  falls  off  as  the  feather 
develops. 

FIG.  23  Sheen. — The      glistening     brightness,      or 

gloss,  on  plumage. 

Shoulder. — The   front   or  upper   part   of  the   wing;    it   is 
round  or  bow   shaped   and   is   hidden    in   fowls   of   some 
breeds  by  the  breast  plumage  and  hackle;  in  game  fowls 
it  stands  out  prominently.     See  34,  Fig.  1. 
Shoulder  Butt. — Same  as  shoulder. 

Show-Room  Form. — The   form   that   a   fowl    has   in   the 
show  room. 

Sickles. — The     top     pair     of     curved 
feathers  in  the  tail  of  male  fowls.     One 
or  two  pairs  similar  to  these,  but  below 
them,  are  called  the  lesser  sickles.     See  ( 
28  and  29,  Fig.  1. 
Side  Spike. — Same  as  side  sprig. 
Side      Sprig. — An      extra      point,      or  " 
growth,  at  the  side  or  near  the  end  of 
a   single    comb.      Fig.    24. 

Silvery. — A  term  applied  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  shoulders  of  barred 
fowls  that  are  deficient  in  barring 
and  that  have  light,  or  silvery  mark- 
ings on  these  parts  instead  of  the  customary  barring. 
Single  Color. — Same  as  whole  color. 

Single    Comb.— A    thin,    serrated,    fleshy    growth    on    the 
top   of  the   head  of  a   fowl,   as   in   Plymouth   Rocks   and 


FIG.  24 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


287 


FIG.  25 


Leghorns.     Fig.    25.     At   a   is   one   of   the    serrations,    or 
points;  at  b,  the  blade. 

Single  Mating.— A.  mating  from  which   both   males   and 
females  fit  for   exhibition  are  produced 
from    a    single    pair    of   breeding   fowls. 
See  double  mating. 

Sit. — To     cover     eggs     for     hatching; 
incubate. 

Sitters. — Fowls  that  sit   on  and  incu-  / 
bate   eggs.     The  sitting  proclivities   are 
stronger  in  some  breeds  than  in  others. 
Fowls   in    which   the    sitting   proclivities 
are  weak  are  said  to  be  non-sitters. 

Sitting. — The    act    of    sitting   to    incu- 
bate eggs;  also,  the  number  of  eggs  for  a  sitting,  usually 
from  11  to   15.     See  clutch. 

Slipped  Wing. — A  wing  in  which  the 
light,  or  secondary,  wing  feathers  hang 
loose  or  out  of  place.  Fig.  26. 

Smooth     Legs. — Legs     that     have     no 
feathers,  stubs,  or  down  on  the  shanks. 
Smut. — A  term  applied   to   dark  color 
overlying  any  section  of  a  fowl. 
FIG.  26  Solid    Color. — Of    one    uniform    color 

throughout;  self-color. 

Spangle. — A  dark  marking  at  the  point, 
or  tip,  of  a  feather.  Fig.  27. 

Spike. — The  rear  point  on  a  rose  comb; 
also  sometimes  called  a  leader.  See  a, 
Fig.  22. 

Splashed  Feathers. — Feathers  in  which 
there  is  an  uneven  mixture  of  color. 

Split  Crest. — A  rounded  crest  that  is 
split  and  falls  over  on  both  sides. 

Sport. — A  fowl  that  varies  from  the 
normal  type;  a  white  offspring  from  black 
parents. 


FIG.  27 


Spur. — A  horny  growth  on  the   inside  of  the   shank  of 
a  cock.     See  23,  Fig.  .1. 


288 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


FIG.  28 


Squirrel    Tail. — A    tail    in    which    the    feathers    are    car- 
ried so  far  forward  as  almost  to  touch  the  head,  like  the 
tail  of  a  squirrel.     Fig.   28. 

Stag. — A  young  game  cock;  also, 
a  turkey  cock. 

Standard  Mating. — A  mating  in 
which  the  fowls  conform  to  Stand- 
ard description;  sometimes  called 
single  mating  when  the  purpose  is 
the  production  of  both  males  and 
females. 

Station. — Manner  of  standing;  at- 
titude, or  pose  of  a  fowl.  A  fowl 
is  said  to  have  good  station  when 
it  has  a  form  typical  of  the  breed 
to  which  it  belongs,  has  good  symmetry,  and  the  proper 
height  and  reach.  Station  is  a  term  applied  more 
especially  to  game  fowls.  Compare  with  carriage. 

Steppings.—A  term  used  in  England  to  describe  the 
effect  produced  by  the  ends  of  the  secondary  feathers, 
each  one  of  which  is  shorter  than  the  one  immediately 
below  it,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  flight  of  steps. 

Stippling. — The  effect  produced  on  plumage  by  dots 
of  dark  and  of  light  shades  of  color,  as  in  Brown  Leg- 
horn females.  Fig.  29. 

Strain. — Fowls  of  one  variety  that  have  been  bred  in 
line  for  a  number  of  generations  from  a 
few  original  fowls. 

Strawberry  Com  b. — A 
lump  comb,  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  strawberry  in 
shape,  as  in  Malays  and 
Silkies.  Fig.  30. 

Striping. — Markings     of 
dark     color     that     extend 
down    the    middle    of    a 
FIG.  29          feather    and    taper    to    a  FlG-  30 

point  near   the  tip   of  the   feather,   as  in  Light   Brahmas, 
Brown  Leghorns,  and  some  other  fowls.     Fig.  31. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


289 


Stub. — A  short  piece  of  the  quill  of  a  feather;  especially, 
a    short    piece    of    the    quill    of    a    feather    occasionally 
found     on     the     shanks     of     smooth-legged 
fowls. 

Style. — A  fowl  is  said  to  have  style  when 
it  presents  a  fine,  spirited  appearance,  and 
nas  good  symmetry,  station,  and  carriage. 

Supplementary  Lacing. — An  outside  edg- 
ing or  lacing  of  a  different  shade  or  tint 
than  the  color  next  to  it,  that  is  found  on 
both  laced  and  solid  feathers.  When  it 
occurs  on  laced  feathers,  as  in  edging  of 
white  around  the  outside  of  black  lacing, 
it  is  the  same  as  double  lacing.  Fig.  10. 

Surface  Color. — The  color  on  the  parts 
of  the  feathers  exposed  to  view. 

Sword  Feather. — A  main  tail  feather  of 
a  Japanese  Bantam  male. 

Symmetry. — The  blending  of  all  sections 
or  parts  of  a  fowl  into  a  harmonious  whole. 

Tail  Coverts. — The  curved,  soft  feathers 
about  the  sides  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
tail  feathers.  See  30,  Fig.  1. 

Tail  Feathers.— The  stiff,  or  main,  feathers  of  the  tail. 
See  ji,  Fig.  1. 

Team. — Three   or   more   fowls  shown  by  one  exhibitor. 

Thigh. — The  upper  segment  of  the  leg;  it  is  included 
between  the  body  of  the  fowl  and  the  upper  extremity 
of  what  is  known  as  the  drumstick. 

Thoroughbred.— (1)  Of  the  best  or  the  purest  breeding; 
in  this  sense,  now  generally  replaced  by  the  term 
standard  bred.  (2)  A  term  descriptive  of  game  cocks  of 
high  courage  and  spirits. 

Throat. — Same  as  gullet. 

Thumb  Mark. — (1)  A  hollow  place  in  the  side  of  a 
single  comb.  Fig.  24.  (2)  An  opening  or  split  in  the 
front  or  center  of  a  rose  comb. 

Ticked.— Plumage  is  ticked  when  it  has  spots  of  color 
different  from  the  rest  of  the  plumage. 


FIG.  31 


290  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Tight  Feathered.— Fowls   are   said   to  be   tight  feathered 
when  the  feathers  lie  close  to  the  body;  close  feathered. 
Tom. — A  male  turkey;  a  gobbler. 

Top.  Color. — The    color    of    the    plumage    on    the    back. 
Topknot. — A    tufted    growth    of   feathers    on    the    top    of 
the  head  of  a  fowl;  a  crest.     Figs.  9  and  16. 

Training.— The   teaching  or   drilling  of   a  fowl   to   pose 
in  the  show  room. 
Tricolored. — Of   three   colors. 

Trimming.— A  fraudulent  way  of  preparing  a  fowl  for 
the  show  room.  See  faking. 

Trio. — Three;   in  poultry,   a  male   and  two  females. 
Trunk. — The  body  of  a  fowl,  as  distinguished  from  its 
appendages,  the  legs,  neck,  head,  etc. 

Tucked  Up. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  tucked  up  when  the 
abdomen  lacks  fulness  and  makes  a  sharp  upward  turn 
to  the  tail,  as  in  game  fowls. 

Twisted    Comb.— A    comb    twisted    into    curves    or    some 
other  faulty  shape.     Fig.  32. 

Type.— The  form  peculiar  to  any 
breed. 

Under  Plumage. — The  fluff  or  under 
part  of  the  plumage,  seen  only  when 
the  feathers  are  separated.  See  feather, 
and  b,  Fig.  12. 

Utility    Fowl. — A    fowl    for    egg    pro- 
duction   and    market    purposes,    as    dis- 
tinguished from  an  exhibition  fowl. 
FIG.  32  Variety. — A    subdivision    of    a    breed; 

distinguished  from  other  varieties   of  the  same  breed  by 
the  plumage  colors.     See  breed. 

V -Shaped  Comb. — A  comb  having  two  points  or  prongs; 
also  called  antler  comb,  and  horn  comb.  Fig.  2. 

Vulture  Hock. — A  hock  like  that  of  a  vulture,  which  has 
stiff  feathers  growing  from  the  hock  joint.     See  16,  Fig.  1. 
Washiness.— A    state    or   quality    of   a    feather   that    ap- 
pears to  have  had  the  color  washed  out  of  it. 

Waster.— A    fowl    unfit    for    breeding    purposes,    but 
for  food. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 


291 


Wattles.— Pendant  growths  of  flesh  that  hang  on  each 
side  of  the  beak;  most  prominently  developed  in  male 
fowls. 

HV.\— (1)  The  u£per  part  of  a  feather  where  the  barbs 
are  stuck  together;  the  flat,  thin  feather  structure  beyond 
the  fluff  part  of  the  feather.  See  feather  and  a,  Fig.  12. 
(2)  The  skin  growing  between  the  toes.  (3)  The  skin 
between  the  joints  of  the  wing. 

U'eb  Foot. — A  foot  with  webs  between  the  toes.  When- 
a  fowl  other  than  a  water  fowl  has  a  foot  with  webs 
between  the  toes,  it  is  said  to  have  a  web  foot. 

Wheaten.—Kn  uneven  brown  like  that  on  ripe  standing 
wheat;  peculiar  to  some  females  of  the  Black-Breasted 
Red  Games  and  the  Faverolles. 

Whip  Tail. — The  fine,  slim  tail  of  the  modern  game  or 
game  bantam  fowl. 

Whiskers.— Feathers  growing  from  the  side  of  the  face; 
same  as  muff.  Sometimes  applied  to  the  muffling  below 
the  beak.  See  6,  Fig.  1. 

Whole  Color.— A.  fowl  is  said  to  be  of  a  whole  color 
when  all  of  its  plumage  is  of  one  color,  as  buff  or 
black,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  all  the  plumage  must 
be  of  one  shade  of  the  color. 

Willow  Color. — A  greenish  yellow  color  peculiar  to 
the  shanks  of  some  game  fowls. 

Wing  Bar. — A  bar  of  dark  color  across  the  middle  of 
a  wing.  See  35,  Fig.  1. 

Wing  Bay. — A  triangular  surface 
showing  on  the  wing  where  it  is  folded; 
located  between  the  wing  bar  and  the 
point  of  the  wing.  See  36,  Fig.  1. 

Wing  Bow. — The  surface  of  the  wing 
between  the  wing  bar  and  the  shoulder. 
See  33,  Fig.  1. 

Wing  Butts.—  The  ends  of  the  flight 
feathers;  a  misnomer  for  wing  points. 

Wing      Coverts. — The      feathers      that  FlG- 

cover  the   roots  of  the  secondary  flight  feathers. 


292  ARITHMETIC 

Wing  Fronts.— The  fronts  of  the  wings,  properly  called 
shoulders;  improperly  called  wing  butts. 

Wing  Points. — The  extreme  outer  ends  of  the  flight 
feathers. 

Work,  Full  of  Work.— A  term  used  in  England  to  de- 
scribe a  well-finished  rose  comb,  the  points  of  which  are 
perfect  or  nearly  perfect. 

Wry  Tail. — A  tail  carried  to  one  side.     Fig.  33. 


ARITHMETIC 


MEASURES    OF   EXTENSION 

Measures  of  extension  are  used  in  measuring  lengths  (dis- 
tances), surfaces  (areas),  and  solids  (volumes),  and  are 
divided,  accordingly,  into  linear  measure,  square  measure,  and 
cubic  measure. 

Linear  measure  has  one  dimension  (length),  square  measure 
has  two  dimensions  (length  and  breadth),  and  cubic  measure 
has  three  dimensions  (length,  breadth,  and  thickness). 

LINEAR  MEASURE 

12    inches  (in.) '. . .  =  1  foot ft. 

3    feet =1  yard yd. 

5$  yards =1  rod rd. 

320    rods =1  mile ml. 

in.  ft.  yd.      rd.    mi. 

12=         1 
36=        3   =         1 
198=       16*=        5£=     1 
63,360  =  5,280  =1,760   =320=1 
SQUARE    MEASURE 

144    square  inches  (sq.  in.) =1  square  foot sq.  ft. 

9    square  feet =  1  scuare  yard sq.  yd. 

30J  square  yards =1  square  rod sq.  rd. 

160    square  rods =1  acre A. 

640    acres : =1  square  mile sq.  mi. 


ARITHMETIC  293 

sq.  in.  sq.  ft.  sq.  yd.          sq.  rd.        A .  ^ 

144  =  1 

1,296=  9   =  1 

39,204=    *         272  J  =  30  J=  1 

6,272,640=         43,560   =         4,840   =         160=      1 
4,014,489,600  =  27,878,400   =3,097,600   =102,400  =  640  =  1 

SURVEYORS'   SQUARE   MEASURE 

625  square  links  (sq.  li.) =1  square  rod    .  .    sq.  rd. 

16  square  rods =1  square  chain  .    sq.  ch. 

10  square  chains =1  acre A. 

640  acres =1  square  mile  . .    sq.  mi. 

36  square  miles  (6  miles  square)  . .  .  =  1  township Tp. 

A  square  measuring  208.71  ft.  on  each  side  contains  1  A. 
The  following  are  the  comparative  sizes,  in  square  yards, 
of  acres  in  different  places: 


sq.  yd. 
England  and  America  4,840 

Scotland 6,150 

Ireland 7,840 

Hamburg 11,545 


sq.  yd. 

Amsterdam 9,722 

Dantzic 6,650 

France 11,960 

Prussia 3,053 


CUBIC    MEASURE 

1,728  cubic  inches  (cu.  in) =1  cubic  foot cu.  ft. 

27  cubic  feet =1  cubic  yard cu.  yd. 

128  cubic  feet =1  cord  of  wood. 

cu.  in.     cu.  ft.  cu.  yd. 

1,728   =     1 
46,656   =   27   =    1 


MEASURES    OF    WEIGHT 

AVOIRDUPOIS    WEIGHT 

16  ounces  (oz.) =1  pound Ib. 

100  pounds =1  hundredweight  ....    cwt. 

20  hundredweight  1  „, 

2,000  pounds ,/ ~lton T' 

oz.        Ib.     cwt.    T. 
16=         1 
1,600=     100=    1 
32,000  =  2,000  =  20=1 


294  ARITHMETIC 

LONG-TON   TABLE 

16  ounces  (oz.) =1  pound lb. 

28  pounds =1  quarter qr. 

4  quarters =1  hundredweight  ....    cwt. 

20  hundredweight  1 

2,240  pounds / = 

oz.  lb.     qr.  cwt.  T. 

16  =         1 
448=       28=    1 
1,792=     112=   4=    1 
35,840  =  2,240  =  80  =  20  =  1 

TROY  WEIGHT 

24  grains  (gr.) =1  pennyweight pwt. 

20  pennyweights =1  ounce oz. 

12  ounces =1  pound lb. 

gr.      pwt.     oz.     lb. 
24=     1 
480=   20=    1 
5,760  =  240  =  12  =  1 

APOTHECARIES'   WEIGHT 

20  grains  (gr.) =1  scruple sc.  or  9 

3  scruples =1  dram dr.  or  5 

8  drams  .\? =1  ounce oz.  or  5 

12  ounces .  .  .  .  =  1  pound lb.  or  lb. 

gr.         3       5       5     lb 
20=      1 
60=     3=    1 
480=   24=   8=    1 
5,760  =  288  =  96  =  12  =  1 


MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY 

LIQUID  MEASURE 

4    gills  (gi.) =1  pint pt. 

2    pints =1  quart qt. 

4    quarts =1  gallon gal. 

31|  gallons =1  barrel bbl. 

2    barrels  ~i 

63    gallons/ =lhogshead hhd. 


ARITHMETIC  295 

gi.        pt.      qt.     gal.  bbl.  hhd. 
4  =      1 
8=     2  =      1 
32=     8=     4  =    1 
1,008  =  252  =  126  =  31^=1 
2,016  =  504  =  252  =  63   =2  =  1 

APOTHECARIES'   FLUID    MEASURE 

60  minims,  or  drops  (TT^)  . .  .  .  =  1  fluid  dram f$ 

8  fluid  drams =1  fluid  ounce f% 

16  fluid  ounces =1  pint O. 

8  pints =1  gallon Cong. 


2  pints  (pt.) 

8  quarts 

4  pecks 


DRY  MEASURE 

=1  quart. . . 

=1  peck. . . , 

=1  bushel.. 

pt.     qt.  pk.  bu. 
2=    1 
16=   8=1 
64  =  32  =  4  =  1 


AVOIRDUPOIS   POUNDS   IN   A   BUSHEL 


qt. 
pk. 
bu. 


Commodities 

Lb. 

Commodities 

Lb. 

Barley  

48 

Malt  

S4 

Beans 

60 

Oats 

32 

Buckwheat  

48 

Potatoes  

60 

Clover  seed 

60 

Rye 

56 

Corn  (shelled)  

56 

Timothy  seed  

45 

Corn  (in  the  ear) 

70 

Wheat                      .    ... 

60 

The  following  units  are  also  in  commercial  use: 

1  quintal  of  fish =100    Ib. 

1  barrel  of  flour =  196    Ib. 

1  barrel  of  pork  or  beef =200    Ib. 

1  gallon  of  petroleum =     6$  Ib. 

1  keg  of  nails =100    Ib. 


296 


ARITHMETIC 


MEASURES    OF   TIME 

60  seconds  (sec.)  

.  .  .  .  =  1  minute  

,  .    min. 

60  minutes 

=  1  hour 

hr 

24  hours                 .  .  . 

.  =  1  day        

da. 

7  days            

.  .  .  .  =  1  week  

wk. 

4  weeks  

.  .  .  .  =  1  month  

.    mo. 

12  months         

.  .  .  .  =  1  year  :  

•  yr- 

100  years 

=  1  century 

c 

sec. 

min.         hr.       da     wk,  yr. 

60  = 

I 

3,600  = 

60=         1 

86,400  = 

1,440=       24=      1 

604,800  = 

10,080=     168=     7=   1 

31,556,936  = 

525,948  =  8,765  =  365  =  52  =  1 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  months,  in  regular  order, 
with  the   number  of  days  each  contains: 

Days 
I.January    (Jan.) 31 

2.  February  (Feb)   28 

3.  March    (Mar.) 

4.  April  (Apr.)   . 


31 

, 30 

5.  May    31 

6.  June    30 


Days 

7.  July    31 

8.  August   (Aug.)    31 

9.  September    (Sept.).. 30 

10.  October   (Oct.)    31 

11.  November  (Nov.)   ..30 

12.  December  (Dec.)  ...31 


In    leap    years,     1    da.    is    added    to    Feb.,    giving    it 

29   da.     The  following   lines  will   assist   in   remembering 

the  number  of  days  in  each  month: 

"Thirty  days  have  September, 
April,  June,   and  November; 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one, 
Except  the  second  month  alone, 
To  which  we  twenty-eight  assign, 
'Till  leap  year  gives  it  twenty-nine." 
In  many  business  transactions,  the  year  is  regarded  as 

360  da.,  or  12  mo.  of  30  da.  each. 


ARITHMETIC  297 


MEASURES   OF  ANGLES   OR  ARCS 

CIRCULAR  MEASURE 

60  seconds  (*) =1  minute ' 

60  minutes =1  degree ° 

360  degrees =1  circle 0 

60"=  1' 

3,600*=        60'=     1° 
1,296,000/'  =  21,600'  =  360°=10 

A  quadrant  is  one-fourth  of  a  circle,  or  90°;  a  sextant  is 
one-sixth  of  a  circle,  or  60°.  A  right  angle  (L)  contains  90°. 
The  unit  of  measurement  is  the  degree,  or  ^  of  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle. 

Circular,  or  angular,  measure  is  used  principally  by  surveyors, 
navigators,  astronomers,  and  by  technical  men  generally,  for 
measuring  angles  and  arcs  of  circles. 


METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  MEASURES 

The  metric  system  is  based  on  the  meter,  which,  according 
to  the  U,  S.  Coast  and  Goedetic  Survey  Report  of  1884,  is 
equal  to  39.370432  in.  The  value  commonly  used  is  39.37  in. 
and  is  authorized  by  the  U.  S.  government. 

'There  are  three  principal  units — the  meter,  the  liter  (pro- 
nounced 'lee-ter'),  and  the  gram,  the. units  of  length,  capacity, 
and  weight,  respectively.  Multiples  of  these  units  are  obtained 
by  prefixing  to  the  names  of  the  principal  units  the  Greek  words 
deca  (10),  hecto  (100),  and  kilo  (1,000);  the  submultiples,  or 
divisions,  are  obtained  by  prefixing  the  Latin  words  deci  (£f), 
centi  (rio),  and  mill  duVo).  These  prefixes  form  the  key  to  the 
entire  system.  The  abbreviations  of  the  principal  units  of 
these  submultiples  begin  with  a  small  letter,  while  those  of  the 
multiples  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


298  ARITHMETIC 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH 

10  millimeters  (mm.) =  1  centimeter cm. 

10  centimeters =1  decimeter dm. 

10  decimeters =1  meter m. 

10  meters =  1  decameter Dm. 

10  decameters =1  hectometer Hm. 

10  hectometers =1  kilometer Km. 

MEASURES  OF  SURFACE  (NOT  LAND) 

100  square  millimeters 

(sq.  mm.) =1  square  centimeter  .  .  .sq.  cm. 

100  square  centimeters =1  square  decimeter sq.  dm. 

100  square  decimeters =1  square  meter sq.  m. 

MEASURES  OF  VOLUME 

1,000  cubic  millimeters 

(cu.  mm.) =1  cubic  centimeter  . . .  .cu.  cm. 

1,000  cubic  centimeters =1  cubic  decimeter cu.  dm. 

1,000  cubic  decimeters =1  cubic  meter cu.  m. 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY 

10  millimeters  (ml.) =1  centileter cl. 

10  centileters =1  decileter dl. 

10  decileters =1  liter. 1. 

10  liters =1  decaliter Dl. 

10  decaliters =1  hectoliter -. .  .HI. 

10  hectoliters =1  kiloliter Kl, 

The  liter  is  equal  to  the  volume  occupied  by  1  cu.  dm. 

MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT 

10  milligrams  (mg.) =1  centigram eg. 

10  centigrams. =1  decigram dg. 

10  decigrams =1  gram g. 

10  grams =1  decagram Dg. 

10  decagrams =1  hectogram Hg. 

10  hectograms =1  kilogram Kg. 

1,000  kilograms .  =  1  ton T. 

The  gram  is  the  weight  of  1  cu.  cm.  of  pure  distilled  water 
at  a  temperature  of  39.2°  F.;  the  kilogram  is  the  weight  of  1 
liter  of  water;  the  ton  is  the  weight  of  1  cu.  m.  of  water. 


ARITHMETIC  299 

MEASURES   OF   MONEY 

UNITED  STATES  MONEY 

10  mills  (m.) =1  cent c. 

10  cents =1  dime. .' d. 

10  dimes =1  dollar $ 

10  dollars =1  eagle E. 

m.         ct.        d.       $     E. 
10=         1 
100=       10=      1 
1,000=     100=    10=    1 
10,000  =  1 ,000  =  100  =  10  =  1 

The  term  legal  tender  is  applied  to  money  that  may  be 
legally  offered  in  payment  of  debts.  All  gold  coins  are 
legal  tender  for  their  face  value  to  any  amount,  pro- 
vided their  weight  has  not  diminished  more  than  ^. 
Silver  dollars  are  also  legal  tender  to  any  amount;  but 
silver  coins  of  lower  denominations  than  $1  are  legal 
tender  only  for  sums  not  exceeding  $10.  Nickel  and 
copper  coins  are  legal  tender  for  sums  not  exceeding 
25c. 
The  legal  coins  of  the  United  States  are: 

GOLD  COINS  Weight  in  Grains 

1-dollar  piece =   25.8 

2^-dollar  piece,  or  quarter  eagle =   64.5 

3-dollar  piece =   77.4 

5-dollar  piece,  or  half  eagle =  129.0 

10-dollar  piece,  or  eagle =  258.0 

20-dollar  piece,  or  double  eagle. =  516.0 

SILVER  COINS  Weight 

Standard  dollar =412.5    grains 

Half  dollar,  or  50-cent  piece =  192.9    grains,  or  12|  grams 

Quarter  dollar,  or  25-cent  piece.  .  =   96.45  grains,  or    6J  grams 
Dime,  or  10-cent  piece =   38.58  grains,  or    2?  grams 

COPPER  AND  NICKEL  COINS 

Weight 

5-cent  piece =77.16  grains,  or  5  grams 

3-cent  piece =  30.00  grains 

1-cent  piece =  48.00  grains 


300  ARITHMETIC 

ENGLISH   MONEY 

4  farthings  (far.) =1  penny d. 

12  pence =1  shilling s. 

20  shillings =1  pound,  or  sovereign £ 

far.      d.      s.     £ 

4  =      1 
48=   12=    1 
960  =  240  =  20=1 

The  unit  of  English  money  is  the  pound  sterling,  the  value 
of  which  in  United  States  money  is  $4.8665.  The  fineness  of 
English  silver  is  .925;  of  the  gold  coins,  .916|.  What  is  called 
sterling  silver  when  applied  to  solid-silver  articles  has  the 
same  fineness.  Hence  the  name  sterling  silver. 

The  other  coins  of  Great  Britain  are  the  florin  ( =  2  shillings), 
the  crown  (  =  5  shillings),  the  half  crown  (  =  2J  shillings),  and 
the  guinea  ( =  21  shillings) .  The  largest  silver  coin  is  the  crown, 
and  the  smallest  the  threepence  (£  shilling).  The  shilling  is 
worth  25c.  (24.3 +c.)  in  United  States  money.  The  guinea 
is  no  longer  coined.  The  abbreviation  £  is  written  before 
the  number,  while  s.  and  d.  follow.  Thus,  £25  4s.  6d. 
=  25  pounds  4  shillings  6  pence. 

Rule. — To  reduce  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence  to  dollars  and 
cents,  reduce  the  pounds  to  shillings,  add  the  shillings,  if  any, 
and  multiply  the  sum  by  24%;  if  any  pence  are  given,  increase 
this  product  by  twice  as  many  cents  as  there  are  pence. 

EXAMPLE. — Reduce  £4  7s.  lid.  to  dollars  and  cents. 

SOLUTION.—     (4X20+7)  X. 241+2X11  =  $21.39. 

Rule. — To  reduce  pounds  to  dollars,  and  vice  versa,  exchange 
being  at  %4'8665:  Multiply  the  number  of  pounds  by  73,  and 
divide  the  quotient  by  15;  the  result  will  be  the  equivalent  in  dollars 
and  cents.  Or,  multiplying  the  dollars  by  15  and  dividing  the 
product  by  73  will  give  its  equivalent  in  pounds  and  decimals 
of  a  pound. 

EXAMPLE  1. — Reduce  £6  to  dollars  and  cents. 

SOLUTION. —    6X73-^  15  =  $29.20. 

EXAMPLE  2. — Reduce  $17  to  pounds. 

SOLUTION. —     17  X 15  4-  73  =  £3.493. 


ARITHMETIC 


301 


The  monetary  units  of  leading  foreign  nations  and  their 
equivalents  in  United  States  money  are  as  follows.  These 
rates  are  proclaimed  each  year  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury. 


Country 

Monetary  Unit 

Value  in 
U.  S.  Gold 

Canada  

Dollar 

=  100  cents.  .  .  . 

$1.00 

Great  Britain  .... 

Pound 

=  20  shillings  

4.86| 

France  ....  1 

Belgium.  ...  >  ... 
Switzerland  J 
Italy 

Franc 
Lira 

=  100  centimes  
=  100  centesimi 

.193 
.193 

Spain 

Peseta 

—  100  centimos 

193 

German  Empire.  . 
Denmark  1 
Norway      > 

Mark 
Crown 

=  100  pfennigs  -. 
=  100  ore       

.238 
.268 

Sweden      J 
Russia  

Ruble 

=  100  copecks  

.515 

Japan 

Yen 

=  100  sen 

.498 

HEAT 
SPECIFIC  HEATS  OF  METALS 

The  specific  heat  of  a  substance  is  the  number  of  heat 
units  required  to  raise  a  unit  mass  of  the  substance  one 
degree  in  temperature.  The  specific  heat  of  water  is  very 
nearly  constant  for  all  temperatures,  but  that  at  its  tempera- 
ture of  maximum  density  (4°  C.  or  39.1°  F.)  is  considered 
unity.  The  specific  heats  of  most  substances  increase  with 
increasing  temperatures. 


HEAT  UNITS 

One  British  thermal  unit  (B.  T.  U.)  is  the  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  Ib.  of  pure  water  1°  F. 
at  or  near  its  maximum  density,  39.1°  F. 

One  calorie  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  1  Kg.  of  water  1°  C.  at  or  near  4°  C. 


302 


ARITHMETIC 


1  B.  T.  U.  =  .252  calorie  and  1  calorie  =  3.  968  B.  T.  U. 

One  small,  or  gram,  calorie  (a  heat  unit  also  in  some  use)  is 
the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1  gram  of  water  1°  C.  at  or  near  4°  C. 

CENTIGRADE  AND   FAHRENHEIT   DEGREES 


D<?g- 

DPeg- 

Deg. 
C. 

Dpe, 

Deg. 

Deg. 
F. 

Dce8' 

Deg. 
F. 

0 

32.0 

26 

78.8 

51 

123.8 

76 

168.8 

1 

33.8 

27 

80.6 

52 

125.6 

77 

170.6 

2 

35.6 

28 

82.4 

53 

127.4 

78 

172.4 

3 

37.4 

29 

84.2 

54 

129.2 

79 

174.2 

4 

39.2 

30 

86.0 

55 

131.0 

80 

176.0 

5 

41.0 

31 

87.8 

56 

132.8 

81 

177.8 

6 

42.8 

32 

89.6 

57 

134.6 

82 

179.6 

7 

44.6 

33 

91.4 

58 

136.4 

83 

181.4 

8 

46.4 

34 

93.2 

59 

138.2 

84 

183.2 

9 

48.2 

35 

95.0 

60 

140.0 

85 

185.0 

10 

50.0 

36 

96.8 

61 

141.8 

86 

186.8 

11 

51.8 

37 

98.6 

62 

143.6 

87 

188.6 

12 

53.6 

38 

100.4 

63 

145.4 

88 

190.4 

13 

55.4 

39 

102.2 

64 

147.2 

89 

192.2 

14 

57.2 

40 

104.0 

65 

149.0 

90 

194.0 

15 

59.0 

41 

105.8 

66 

150.8 

91 

195.8 

16 

60.8 

42 

107.6 

67 

152.6 

92 

197.6 

17 

62.6 

43 

109.4 

68 

154.4 

93 

199.4 

18 

64.4 

44 

111.2 

69 

156.2 

94 

201.2 

19 

66.2 

45 

113.0 

70 

158.0 

95 

203.0 

20 

68.0 

46 

114.8 

71 

159.8 

96 

204.8 

21 

69.8 

47 

116.6 

72 

161.6 

97 

206.6 

22 

71.6 

48 

118.4 

73 

163.4 

98 

208.4 

23 

73.4 

49 

120.2 

74 

165.2 

99 

210.2 

24 

75.2 

50 

122.0 

75 

167.0 

100 

212.0 

25 

77.0 

ARITHMETIC  303 

TEMPERATURE 

The  temperature  of  a  body  is  its  degree  of  sensible  heat. 
For  the  measurement  of  temperatures  there  are  three  kinds  of 
thermometers:  the  Fahrenheit,  abbreviated  F.  or  Fahr.,  com- 
monly used  in  America;  the  Centigrade,  abbreviated  C.  or 
Cent.,  used  in  France  and  by  scientists  everywhere;  and  the 
Reaumur,  abbreviated  R.  or  R6au.,  used  in  Germany. 

Standard  Points  Degrees  F.     Degrees  C.      Degrees  R. 

Boiling  point  of  water  at  "j 

sea  level;  i.  e.,  pressure  >          212  100  80 

=  1  atmosphere J 

Melting  point  of  ice 32  0  0 

Absolute  zero,  i.  e.,  thel 

total  absence  of  heat;  >      -460  -273  -219 


Between  boiling  point  and  freezing  point  =  180°  F.  =  100°  C. 
=  80°R. 

9  9 

Temp.  F.=-  Temp.  C. +32°  =-Temp.  R.+320. 
5  4 

Temp.  C.  =  -(Temp.  F.-320)  =-Temp.  R. 
9  4 

Temp.  R.  =  -(Temp.  F.-320)  =-Temp.  C. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES 

The  following  table  is  used  in  counting  certain  articles: 

12  of  anything =1  dozen doz. 

12  dozen =1  gross gr. 

12  gross =1  great  gross g.  gr. 

20  of  anything =1  score 

units       doz.  gr.  g.  gr. 

12=     1 
144=    12  =    1 
1,728  =  144=12  =  1 


304  ARITHMETIC 

The  following  table  is  used  in  the  paper  trade: 

24  sheets =1  quire qr. 

20  quires =1  ream rm. 

2  reams =1  bundle bdl 

5  bundles =1  bale B. 

sheets      qr.     rm.  bdl.  B. 

24=      1 
480=   20=    1 
960=   40=   2=1 
4,800  =  200=10  =  5  =  1 

It  is  now  becoming  customary  to  consider  500  sheets 
as  a  ream,  and  to  discard  the  higher  denominations. 

BOOKS 

The  terms  folio,  quarto,  octavo,  etc.,  show  the  number 
of  leaves  into  which  a  sheet  of  paper  is  folded. 

Folio    =  2  leaves,  or   4  pages 

Quarto    =  4  leaves,  or   8  pages 

Octavo    -  8  leaves,  or  16  pages 

Duodecimo     =12  leaves,  or  24  pages 

16mo     =16  leaves,  or  32  pages 

18mo     =18  leaves,  or  36  pages 

24mo     =24  leaves,  or  48  pages 

32mo     =32  leaves,  or  64  pages 

METRIC   EQUIVALENTS    OF   POUNDS,   FEET,   ETC. 

The  government  publishes  the  equivalents  in  pounds, 
etc.,  of  the  metric  system,  but  the  American  shipper 
wants  to  know  what  the  pounds,  inches,  feet,  and  gal- 
lons, to  which  he  is  accustomed,  are  in  the  metric 
system.  The  following  is  a  convenient  table  showing 
the  metric  values  of  our  measures.  Some  countries  de- 
mand that  the  metric  system  should  be  used  in  the 
consular  papers,  and  in  most  countries,  especially  in 
Latin-America,  the  consignees  ask  for  the  weights,  etc., 
in  the  metric  system.  This  table  will  be  found  valuable 
for  reference  by  invoice  clerks  and  shipping  clerks  in  the 
export  departments  of  manufacturing  establishments. 


ARITHMETIC 


305 


Pounds 
I 

Kilos 
.  .  =   .4536 

Pounds 
60  

Kilos 
=27.216 

2 

=    .9072 

70     

=31.751 

3 

,    =1.3608 

80  

=36.287 

4 

=1.8144 

90  

=40.823 

5 

—  2.2680 

100  

=   45.36 

6 

=  2.7216 

200  
300     

.  .  .  .  =   90.72 
=  136.08 

7 

—  3  1751 

8 

-  3  6287 

400  

=  181.44 

9 

—  4  0823 

500 

=226.80 

10 

—   4  536 

600     

=272.16 

20 

—   9  072 

700  

....=317.51 

30 

-  13  608 

800  

=362.87 

40 

—  is  144 

900     

=408.23 

50 

—  22  680 

1  000  

.  .  .  .=453.60 

1,000  kilo 
1  inch 

s  =  1  metric  ton  (T( 
Centimeters 
—     2  54 

)nelada  metrico). 
7  feet 

Centimeters 
=  213.36 

1  foot 

=   30.48 

8  feet         

=243.84 

1  yard 

=   91.44 

9  feet  

=274.32 

2  feet 

—   6096 

10  feet 

=  304.80 

3  feet 

=   91  44 

11  feet 

=335.28 

4  feet 

=  121.92 

12  feet  

=365.76 

5  feet  

=  152.40 

13  feet  

=396.24 

6  feet... 

.  .  =  182.88 

14  feet.  .  . 

.  .  =426.72 

DIFFERENCE     OF     SUN     TIME     BETWEEN     NEW 
YORK  CITY  AND  OTHER  PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD 

When  it  is  noon  at  New  York,  it  is,  at 


Buffalo 11:40  A.M. 

Cincinnati 11:18  A.  M. 

Chicago 11:07  A.  M. 

St.  Louis 10:55  A.  M. 

San  Francisco. ....   8:45  A.  M. 
New  Orleans.  .....  10:56  A.  M. 

Washington 11:48  A.  M. 

Charleston 11:36  A.  M. 

Havana 11:25  A.  M. 


Boston 12:12  p.  M. 

Quebec 12:12  p.  M. 

London 4:55  P.  M. 

Paris 5:05  P.  M. 

Rome 5:45  p.  M. 

Constantinople  ...   6:41  p.  M. 

Vienna 6:00  p.  M. 

St.  Petersburg  ....   6:57  p.  M. 
Peking 12:40  A.  M. 


306  ARITHMETIC 

TABLE   OF   DISTANCES 

1  mile =5,280  ft.;  1,760  yd.; 

320  rd.;  8  fur. 

1  furlong =40  rd. 

1  league =3  mi. 

1  knot,*  or  nautical  mile =6,080  ft.,  or  1J  mi. 

1  nautical  league =3  naut.  mi.  - 

1  fathom. =  6  ft. 

1  meter =  3  ft.  3|  in.,  nearly 

1  hand =  4  in. 

1  palm =  3  in. 

1  span =9  in. 

1  cable's  length =240  yd. 

MEASURES  OF  VOLUME 

1  cubic  foot =  1,728  cu.  in. 

1  ale  gallon =282  cu.  in. 

1  standard,  or  wine,  gallon =231  cu.  in. 

1  dry  gallon =268.8  cu.  in. 

1  bushel =2,150.4  cu.  in. 

1  British  bushel, =2,218.19  cu.  in. 

1  cord  of  wood =  128  cu.  ft. 

1  perch =24.75  cu.  ft. 

1  ton  of  round  timber =  40  cu.  ft. 

1  ton  of  hewn  timber =50  cu.  ft. 

A  box  12H  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  bu. 

A  box  19  f   in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  bbl. 

A  box    8i   in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  pk. 

A  box    QYS  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  £  pk. 

A  box    ATS  in.  long,  wide,  and  deep  contains  1  qt. 
Cylinders  having  the  following  dimensions,  in  inches,  con- 
tain  the   measures   stated,   very   closely;   the  diameters  are 
given  first: 

Gill =lfin.X3in.    I    Gallon.. =  7in.X6in. 

Pint =  3|in.X3in.        8  gallons =14in.X12in. 

Quart =3|in.X6in.    |    10 gallons =14in.X15in. 

*A  knot  is  really  a  measure  of  speed  and  not  of  distance; 
when  used  in  this  sense,  it  is  equivalent  to  1  naut.  mi.  in  1  hr. 
Thus,  a  vessel  traveling  20  naut.  mi.  per  hr.  has  a  speed  of 
20  knots. 


ARITHMETIC  307 

PLASTERING,  PAINTING,  AND 
CALCIMINING 

Plastering,  painting,  and  calcimining  are  usually  estimated 
.by  the  square  yard.  Allowances  for  doors,  windows,  etc.  are 
not  regulated  by  any  established  usage. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  perimeter*  of  the  room  by  the  height  of 
the  ceiling  for  the  area  of  the  walls.     To  this  add  the  area  of  the  ' 
ceiling,  and  from  the  sum  make  such  deductions  as  are  specified. 
Reduce  the  results  to  square  yards,  and  multiply  the  price  per 
square  yard  by  the  number  denoting  the  area  in  square  yards. 

EXAMPLE.— At  22c.  per  sq.  yd.,  what  will  it  cost  to 
plaster  a  room  65  ft.  long,  22  ft.  wide,  and  15  ft.  high, 
deducting  in  full  for  8  doors  4  ft.  6  in.  wide  and  11  ft. 
6  in.  high,  10  windows  3  ft.  6  in.  wide  and  8  ft.  high,  and 
a  baseboard  6l/2  in.  high  extending  around  the  room? 

SOLUTION. — 

Perimeter  of  the  room =   65X  2+22X2  =  174  ft. 

Area  of  walls =  174X  15  =  2610        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  ceiling =   65X22  =  1430        sq.  ft. 

Total =4040        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  doors =4£X1UX8=   414        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  windows =3£X  8X 10=   280        sq.  ft. 

Area  of  baseboard =  (perimeter  less 

width  of   8  doors) X§  =  (174-4* X8)X^|=     74|      sq.ft. 

Total,  after  deduction =327U      sq.  ft. 

Area  in  square  yards =327H-H9  =  363Jg  sq.  yd. 

Cost =  $.22  X363*g  =  $79.96 


PAPERING 

Wallpaper  as  made  in  the  United  States,  is  18  in. 
(l/2  yd.)  wide,  and  is  sold  in  single  rolls  and  double 
rolls;  a  single  roll  is  8  yd.  long,  and  a  double  roll  is 
16  yd.  long.  When  cutting  the  paper,  paper  hangers 
divide  the  rolls  into  strips  of  sufficient  length  to  reach 

*The  perimeter  is  the  sum  of  the  lengths  of  the  sides  of  the 
room. 


308  ARITHMETIC 

from  the  baseboard  to  a  short  distance  (say  6  in.)  above 
the  lower  edge  of  the  border.  There  is  always  con- 
siderable waste  in  cutting,  owing  to  the  matching  of 
the  figures  forming  the  design,  and  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  part  of  a  strip  left  over  after  cutting  up  the  roll. 
The  parts  of  strips  thus  left  over  are  used  for  the 
surface  above  doors  and  below  windows,  and  other 
irregular  places.  Although  double  rolls  are  usually 
counted  as  2  single  rolls,  there  is  a  choice  between  them 
in  certain  cases.  Thus,  suppose  the  strips  were  required 
to  be  9  ft.  (3  yd.)  long,  only  2  strips  could  be  cut  from 
a  single  roll,  or  4  strips  from  2  single  rolls,  while  5 
strips  could  be  cut  from  a  double  roll.  The  length  of  a 
roll  of  border  is  the  same  as  the  length  of  a  roll  of 
paper. 

On  account  of  the  waste  in  cutting,  the  various  sizes 
and  shapes  of  rooms,  the  number  of  windows,  doors,  etc., 
it  is  difficult  to  estimate  exactly  the  number  of  rolls 
required.  Two  rules  are  given,  both  of  which  are  used 
in  practice: 

Rule. — I.  From  the  perimeter  of  the  room,  subtract  the  widths 
~)f  openings  (windows  and  doors'),  and  reduce  the  result  to  halj 
yards;  the  number  of  half  yards  so  obtained  will  be  the  total 
number  of  strips  required.  Find  the  number  of  strips  that  can 
*)e  cut  from  a  roll,  and  divide  the  first  result  by  the  second;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  rolls  required. 

II.  Divide  the  number  of  half  yards  of  the  perimeter  of  tht 
room  by  the  number  of  strips  that  can  be  cut  from  a  roll;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  rolls  required. 

If  computed  by  the  first  rule,  the  number  of  rolls 
obtained  may  be  too  small,  and  if  computed  by  the 
second  rule,  too  large.  But,  since  paper  dealers  will 
usually  take  back  all  rolls  that  are  intact,  the  second 
rule  will  generally  give  the  best  results,  as  it  will 
prevent  the  loss  of  time  required  to  send  to  the  dealer 
for  extra  rolls,  in  case  they  are  needed. 

EXAMPLE.— Find    how    much    paper    will    be    needed 
cover  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  a  room  15  ft.  x20  ft.,  the 
border  for  both  walls  and  ceiling  to  be  18  in.  wide.    The 


the 
'he 


ARITHMETIC  309 

baseboard  is  8  in.  high,  and  the  height  of  walls  from 
floor  to  ceiling  is  9  ft. 

SOLUTION. — Since  the  widths  of  the  openings  are  not 
specified,  it  will  be 'necessary  to  use  rule  II. 

Perimeter  of  room  =  2  x  15  +  2  x  20  =  70  f t.  =  23^  yd.  =  46% 
half  yards,  or  47  strips.  Assuming  that  the  strips  extend 
the  height  of  the  baseboard  above  the  bottom  edge  of 
the  border,  the  length  of  a  strip  is  (since  18  in.  r  ll/2  ft.) 
1^-75^  ft.  =  2l/2  yd.  Hence,  the  number  of  strips  in 
a  single  roll  is  8  T  2y2  -  3  strips,  and  the  number  of  rolls 
required  is  47 -=-3  =  15%,  or  16  rolls. 

In  papering  the  ceiling,  the  direction  in  which  the 
strips  are  to  run  must  be  considered.  If  the  strips  run 
lengthwise  of  the  room,  the  distance  between  the  edges 
of  the  border  is  20  -  2  x  \y2  -  17  ft.,  and  the  length  of  the 
strips  must  be  at  least  18  ft.,  or  6  yd.,  long;  hence,  but 
1  strip  can  be  cut  from  a  single  roll,  and  but  2  strips 
from  a  double  roll.  The  width  of  the  room  in  half  yards 
is  (15T3)x2-10;  hence,  allowing  for  the  border,  9  strips, 
or  9  single  rolls,  will  be  required. 

If  the  strips  run  crosswise  of  the  room,  the  length 
of  a  strip  between  the  edges  of  the  border  will  be 
15-2x1^-12  ft.,  and  the  length  of  a  strip  must  be  at 
least  13  ft.,  or  4!/&  yd. ;  hence,  1  strip  may  be  obtained 
from  a  single  roll,  or  16v41/§  =  3  strips  from  a  double 
roll.  The  length  of  the  room  in  half  yards  is  (20  f  3)  x  2 
=  13^;  hence,  allowing  the  paper  to  extend  6  in.  beyond 
the  inner  edge  of  the  border,  at  both  ends  of  the  room, 
12  strips  will  be  required.  The  number  of  double  rolls 
required  will  be  12  -=-  3  -  4  double  rolls.  Consequently,  in 
this  case,  there  is  less  waste  when  the  paper  runs  cross- 
wise than  when  it  runs  lengthwise. 

Since  the  perimeter  of  the  room  is  70  ft.,  or  231/&  yd., 
3i/£-=-8  =  3  single  rolls  o'f  border  for  the  walls,  and  the 
same  amount  for  the  ceiling  will  be  required.  Therefore, 
16  single  rolls  of  paper  are  required  for  the  walls, 
4  double  rolls  for  the  ceiling,  3  single  rolls  of  border  for 
the  walls,  and  3  single  rolls  for  the  ceiling. 


310  ARITHMETIC 

CARPETING 

Carpet  is  made  in  various  widths.  Ingrain  carpet  is  usually 
36  in.,  or  1  yd.,  wide;  Brussels  carpet  is  27  in.,  or  f  yd.,  wide. 
Carpet  borders  are  22 £  in.,  or  f  yd.,  wide.  A  linear  yard  of 
ingrain  carpet  contains  1  sq.  yd.,  and  a  linear  yard  of  Brussels 
carpet  contains  f  sq.  yd. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  linear  yards  of  carpet  required 
for  a  room,  if  no  allowance  is  made  for  cutting  and  matching 
the  strips,  divide  the  area  of  the  room  in  square  yards  by  the  area 
of  a  linear  yard  .of  ihe  carpet. 

EXAMPLE.— How  many  yards  of  Brussels  carpet  will  be 
required  to  cover  a  floor  36  ft.  long  and  21  ft.  wide, 
making  no  allowance  for  cutting  and  matching? 

SOLUTION.— Area      of      floor  =  36X21  =  756      sq.   ft.  =  ^~ 

=  84  sq.  yd..  A  linear  yard  of  Brussels  carpet  has  an  area  of 
£  sq.  yd.  Hence,  the  number  of  linear  yards  required  is 
84-H=112  yd. 

In  practice,  there  is  usually  considerable  loss  due  to 
cutting  and  matching.  To  find  the  number  of  yards  re- 
quired for  a  room,  when  allowance  is  made  for  loss,  the 
width  of  the  room  is  divided  by  the  width  of  a  single 
strip.  The  quotient  is  the  number  of  strips  required, 
supposing  them  to  run  lengthwise  of  the  room.  The 
number  of  strips  multiplied  by  the  length  in  yards  of  a 
single  strip,  making  allowance  for  the  loss  required  for 
matching,  is  the  number  of  linear  yards  required. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  yards  of  Brussels  carpet  will  be 
required  to  cover  a  room  23  ft.  long  and  15  ft.  wide, 
making  an  allowance  of  1  ft.  on  each  strip  for  matching? 
The  carpet  is  supposed  to  run  lengthwise. 

SOLUTION. — Width  of  room  =15  ft.  =  180  in.  Width  of 
carpet  =  27  in.  Number  of  strips— 180-4-27  =  6f.  Hence, 
7  strips  must  be  used,  the  excess,  9  in.,  being  cut  off  or  turned 
under.  Allowing  1  ft.  for  matching,  length  of  strip  =  23  -f-1 
=  24  ft.  =  8  yd.  Number  of  linear  yards  required  =  7X8 
=  56  yd. 


ARITHMETIC  311 

The  number  of  linear  yards  of  carpet  border  required 
for  a  room  is  equal  to  the  perimeter  of  the  room  in 
yards. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  yards  of  border  will  be  required 
in  carpeting  a  room  42  ft.  long  and  2(>l/2  ft.  wide? 

SOLUTION.— Perimeter    of    room  =  42X2+26£X2  =  137    ft. 

137 
=  -3- =  45}  yd. 


BOARD  MEASURE 

In  measuring  lumber,  the  unit  is  the  board  foot,  which  is  a 
board  1  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide,  and  1  in.  (or  less)  thick.  One 
board  foot  is  equal  to  ^  cu.  ft. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  board  feet  in  any  piece  of  lumber, 
multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  breadth  in  feet,  and  this  product 
by  the  thickness  in  inches,  if  it  be  more  than  1  inch;  or,  otherwise, 
multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  breadth  in  inches,  and  this 
product  by  the  thickness  in  inches,  and  then  divide  by  12. 

EXAMPLE.— How  many  board  feet  are  contained  in  a 
joist  18  ft.  long,  14  in.  wide,  and  12  in.  thick? 

18X14X12     _._. 

SOLUTION. —      ^ =252  board  feet. 

Lumber  is  sold  by  the  thousand  (M)  feet,  the  term  foot 
being  always  used  instead  of  the  longer  term,  board  foot. 

Rule. — To  find  the  cost  of  lumber,  divide  the  number  of  feet  by 
1,000  and  multiply  by  the  cost  per  M. 

EXAMPLE.— What  will  be  the  cost  of  19  boards  14  ft. 
long,  15  in.  wide,  and  \l/2  in.  thick,  at  $23.50  per  M? 

,    4     19X14X15XH 
SOLUTION. — Number    of    thousand     feet  =  —  QQQ 

=  .498f.     Hence,  .498f X  $23.50  =  $11. 72. 

Shingles  are  sold  in  bundles  of  250  VA  M).  The  lengths 
of  all  shingles  in  bundle  are  the  same  (usually  12  in., 
14  in.,  or  16  in.),  but  their  widths  vary.  The  average 
width,  however,  is  generally  4  in.,  the  width  of  all 
bundles  being  alike.  When  laying  shingles,  4  in.  is 
usually  exposed  to  the  weather,  the  remaining  portions 
being  concealed  by  the  other  shingles. 


312  ARITHMETIC 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  shingles  required  to  cover  a  roof, 
compute  the  total  area  of  the  roof  in  square  inches,  and  divide 
this  area  by  the  product  of  the  average  width  of  the  shingles  and 
the  length  that  is  exposed  to  the  weather. 

EXAMPLE.— What  will  it  cost  to  shingle  a  roof,  each 
side  measuring  40  ft.  x  16  ft.,  if  the  shingles  cost  $4.50 
per  M? 

SOLUTION. — Since  the  size  of  the  exposed  portion  is  not 
stated,  it  will  be  assumed  as  4  in.X4  in.  Then,  for  one  side, 

40  X1^*144  =  5.760  shingles  will  be  required,  and  for  both 

4X4 

sides,  5,760X2  =  11,520  shingles.     Therefore,  the  cost  will  be 
11.52X34.50  =  $51.84. 

Multiply  by  144  in  order  to  reduce  the  square  feet  (40X16) 
to  square  inches.  Allowance  should  also  be  made  for  waste. 


MASONRY 

In  estimating  the  cubical  contents  of  stone  walls,  the  perch 
of  24|  cu.  ft.  is  used. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  perches  of  masonry  in  a  wall, 
divide  the  volume  of  the  watt  in  cubic  feet  by  24  J. 

In  estimating  the  contents  of  stone  foundations  for  build- 
ings, the  length  of  the  wall  is  measured  on  the  outside,  thus 
counting  each  corner  twice.  If  a  wall  2  ft.  thick  measures 
12  ft.  X  20  ft.  on  the  outside,  and  the  corners  are  assumed  to 
be  parts  of  the  longer  sides,  there  will  be  2  walls  each  20  ft. 
long,  and  2  walls  each  8  ft.  long.  The  actual  length  is  there- 
fore 2X20+2X8  =  56  ft.  The  length  estimated  on  the  out- 
side is  2X20+2X12=64  ft.  To  find  the  actual  length  of 
such  a  wall,  subtract  4  times  the  thickness  of  the  wall  from 
the  length  measured  on  the  outside.  Thus,  in  the  above  case, 
actual  length  =  64 -4X2  =  56  ft. 

Usually,  masons  make  no  allowance  for  windows  or  doors 
in  estimating  their  work.  In  estimating  the  quantity  of  stone 
required  for  the  wall,  such  allowances  should  be  made. 

EXAMPLE.— (a)  How  many  perches  of  stone  will  be  re- 
quired to  build  the  walls  of  a  church  60  ft.  long  by 


ARITHMETIC  313 

32  ft.  wide,  the  walls  being  24  ft.  high  and  2l/4  ft.  thick? 
There  are  8  windows,  each  5  ft.  wide  and  11  ft.  high, 
and  2  doors,  each  6  ft.  wide  and  9  ft.  high,  (b)  What 
will  be  the  cost  of  laying  the  walls  at  $3.50  per  perch? 

SOLUTION. — 

Length  of  wall  (outside)  =  2X60+2X32  =  184  ft. 

Actual  length  =  184  -  4  X  2  J  =  175  ft. 

Actual  cubical  contents  =  1 75 X24X2J  =  9, 450  cu.  ft. 

Allowance  for  windows  =  5X  11X2^X8  =  990  cu.  ft. 

Allowance  for  doors  =  6X9X2^X2  =  243  cu.  ft. 

Net  contents  =  9,450 -(990+243)  =8,217  cu.  ft. 

(a)     Perches  required  for  wall  =  8 ,2 1 7  -i-  24  f  =  332 . 

(6)  Since,  in  estimating  the  cost  of  the  work,  no  allowance 
is  made  for  corners,  doors,  and  windows. 

Cubical  contents  =  184  X  24  X2i  =  9, 936  cu.  ft. 

Perches  of  stone  work  =  9, 936 -4- 24  f  =  401  A- 

Cost  of  laying  walls  =  401  AX $3.50  =  $1,405.09. 


BRICKWORK 

Brickwork  is  generally  estimated  by  the  thousand 
bricks  laid  in  the  wall,  but  measurements  by  the  cubic 
yard  and  by  the  perch  are  also  used.  To  allow  for 
mortar,  l/4  in.  is  added  to  the  length  and  to  the  thickness 
in  making  calculations.  The  following  data  will  be 
found  useful  in  calculating  the  number  of  bricks  in  a 
wall.  For  each  superficial  foot  of  wall  4  in.  in  thickness 
(the  width  of  1  brick),  allow  7l/2  bricks;  for  a  9-in.  wall 
(the  width  of  2  bricks),  allow  15  bricks;  and  so  on, 
estimating  7l/2  bricks  for  each  additional  4  in.  in  thick- 
ness of  wall.  If  brickwork  is  to  be  estimated  by  the 
cubic  yard,  allow  500  bricks  to  1  cu.  yd.  This  figure  is 
based  on  the  use  of  8^4  in.  x  4  in.  x  2^4  in.  bricks,  with 
.mortar  joints  not  over  y$  in.  thick.  If  the  joints  are 
14  in.  thick,  as  in  face  brickwork,  1  cu.  yd.  will  require 
about  575  bricks.  In  making  calculations  of  the  number 
of  bricks  required,  an  allowance  of,  say,  5%  should  be 
made  for  waste  in  breakage,  etc. 


314  ARITHMETIC 

BINS,  CISTERNS,  ETC. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  estimate  the  capacity  of  & 
bin,  box,  or  vessel  in  bushels,  barrels,  or  gallons.  The 
volume  of  the  bin  or  vessel  in  cubic  feet  or  cubic 
inches  is  divided  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  or  cubic 
inches  in  a  bushel,  barrel,  or  gallon,  as  the  case  may  be. 
For  convenience  of  reference,  the  following  table  of 
capacities  is  given: 

DRY    MEASURE 

1  heaped  bushel  =2,747.71  cu.  in.  =  1.59  cu.  ft.,  nearly 
1  stricken  bushel  =  2, 150.42  cu.  in.  =  1.25  cu.  ft.,  nearly 
1  peck  =  537.6  cu.  in. 

1  quart  =      67.2    cu.  in. 

1  pint  =      33.6    cu.  in. 

LIQUID  MEASURE 
1  hogshead  =  8.422    cu.  ft. "] 
1  barrel       =4.211    cu.  ft. 
1  gallon       =231       cu.  in. 
quart        =  57.75    cu.  in. 
1  pint          =28.875  cu.  in. 

Rule. — To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin  or  other  vessel  in  dry 
measure  or  in  liquid  measure,  divide  the  volume  of  the  bin  or 
vessel  in  cubic  inches  by  the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  the  unit 
of  measure. 

The  following  table  of  approximate  capacities  is  very 
convenient  in  rough  calculations: 

1  cubic  foot  =  .63  heaped  bushel 
1  cubic  foot  =  .80  stricken  bushel 
1  cubic  foot  =  7.50  liquid  gallons 
1  cubic  foot  =  |#  barrel 

The    following    short    rules    are    approximate,    but    thei 
results  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  all  practical  purposes.  I 
Rule. — To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin  in  heaped  bushels,  multiply^ 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  .63. 

Rule. — To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin  in  stricken  bushels,  multiply^ 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  .8. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cistern  or  other 
vessel,  multiply  the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  7.5. 


ARITHMETIC  315 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  barrels  in  a  cistern,  multiply 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  by  $. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cylindrical  vessel, 
multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  in  inches  by  the  height  in 
inches,  and  that  product  by  .0034. 


GAUGING  OF  CASKS 

A  cask  resembles  two  frustums  of  cones  with  their 
larger  bases  placed  together. 

The  bung  diameter  of  a  cask  is  the  diameter  measured 
half  way  between  the  two  ends;  it  is  usually  the  greatest 
diameter. 

The  mean  diameter  of  a  cask  is  the  mean  between  the 
bung  diameter  and  the  head  diameter.  The  mean 
diameter  is  found  by  adding  together  the  head  diameter 
and  bung  diameter  and  dividing  the  sum  by  2. 

Rule. — To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cask,  multiply  the 
square  of  the  mean  diameter  in  inches  by  the  length  in  inches,, 
and  that  product  by  .0034. 

EXAMPLE.— The  diameter  of  a  cask  is  27  in.  at  the 
head,  33  in.  at  the  bung,  and  the  cask  is  3  ft.  long; 
how  many  gallons  will  it  hold? 

07100 

SOLUTION. — Mean  diameter  =  — - —  =  30  in.  Length  =  3  ft. 

=  36  in.     Capacity  =  302 X 36 X. 0034  =  110. 16  gal. 

To  find  the  number  of  liters  in  the  cask,  multiply  by 
.0129  instead  of  .0034.  If  the  cask  is  partly  filled,  stand 
it  on  end,  find  the  mean  diameter  of  the  part  filled, 
multiply  its  square  by  the  height,  and  that  product  by 
.0034. 

COAL  AND  HAY 

A  ton  (2,000  Ib.)  of  Lehigh  coal,  egg  size,  measures 
34^  cu.  ft.  in  the  bin;  Schuylkill  coal,  35  cu.  ft.;  pink- 
gray  and  red-ash  coal,  36  cu.  ft. ;  Wyoming  coal,  31  cu.  ft. 

The  bulk  of  a  ton  of  hay  is  dependent  on  the  pressure 
to  which  it  is  subjected.  Roughly  speaking,  a  ton  of 


316  POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME 

hay  lying  impressed  measures  500  cu.  ft.;  when  in 
a  small  stack,  400  cu.  ft.;  and  in  mows  compressed  with 
grain,  or  in  well-settled  stacks,  300  cu.  ft. 

Shipping  Ton.— Freight  on  very  light  articles  is  usually 
estimated  by  the  space  occupied. 

{1  United  States  shipping  ton 
31.16  imperial  bushels 
32.143  United  States  bushels 
f  1  British  shipping  ton 
42  cu.  ft.=  I  32.719  imperial  bushels 

133.75  United  States  bushels 


POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME 

The  distances  of  the  shortest  routes  and  the  time  by 
the  fastest  trains  between  New  York  City  and  the  points 
indicated  are  given  by  the  Official  Postal  Guide  as 
follows: 

Cities  in  the  United  States  Miles  Hours 

Albany,    N.    Y 142  3^ 

Atlanta,   Ga 882  24J4 

Baltimore,    Md. 188  6 

Binghamton,   N.   Y 207  $l/2 

Bismarck,    N.    Dak 1,738  60^ 

Boise,    Idaho    2,736  92*4 

Boston,  Mass 217  7 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 410  9^ 

Cape  May,  N.  J V. 172  5 

Carson  City,  Nev 3,036  109^4 

Charleston,    S.    C 804  2\Y4 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 853  32 

Cheyenne,   Wyo 1,899  54 

Chicago,    111 900  23 

Cincinnati,  Ohio   744  23 


POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME  317 

Cities  in  the  United  States  Miles  Hours 

Cleveland,    Ohio    568  19^ 

Columbus,    Ohio    624  20 

Concord,   N.   H.    / 292  9^ 

Deadwood,    S.    Dak 1,975  65^ 

Denver,    Colo 1,930  6iy2 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  1,257  37^ 

Detroit,    Mich 743  21 

Qalveston,    Tex 1,789  56*/2 

Harrisburg,    Pa 182  6 

Hartford,    Conn 112  4 

Helena,    Mont 2,423  89 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 1,367  55 

Indianapolis,   Ind. 808  23 

Jacksonville,    Fla 1,077  32 

Kansas   City,   Mo 1,302  38^4 

Louisville,    Ky 854  30 

Memphis,    Tenn 1,163  40 

Milwaukee,    Wis 985  29*A 

Montgomery,   Ala 1,057  30*/2 

Montpelier,   Vt 327  10^4 

New  Orleans,   La *...... 1,344  40 

Omaha,    Neb 1,383  43 

Philadelphia,    Pa 90  3 

Pittsburg,    Pa 431  13 

Portland,  Me.   325  12 

Portland,   Ore 3,181  \\V/2 

Prescott,   Ariz 2,724  94 

Providence,  R.  1 189  6 

Richmond,  Va 344  11# 

St.   Louis,  Mo 1,048  29 

St.  Paul,  Minn 1,300  37 

Salt  Lake   City,   Utah 2,452  7V/2 

San   Francisco,   Cal 3,250  106 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 2,173  82 

Savannah,   Ga 905  26 

Scranton,   Pa 146  V/2 

Tacoma,    Wash 3,209  102 

Topeka,    Kans 1,370  48 


318  POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME 

Cities  in  the  United  States                                   Miles  Hours 

Trenton,    N.   J 57  2 

Vicksburg,    Miss 1,288  50 

Vinita,    Okla 1,412  42 

Washington,   D.   C 228  6*/2 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 496  14^4 

Wilmington,  Del 117  5 

Wilmington,   N.   C 593  20 

The  postal  distances  and  time  between  New  York  and 
foreign  cities  are  as  follows: 

By  Postal  Route  to                                                Miles  Days 

Adelaide,  via  Vancouver  12,845  31 

Alexandria,  via  London  6,150  12 

Amsterdam,   via   London 3,985  8 

Antwerp,  via  London  4,000  8 

Athens,  via  London       5,655  11 

Bahia,   Brazil    5,870  14 

Bangkok,  Siam,  via  San  Francisco 12,900  43 

Batavia,   Java,   via   London 12,800  34 

Berlin,   via   London 4,385  9 

Bombay,  via  London  9,765  22 

Bremen,  via  London   4,235  8 

Buenos  Ayres   8,045  24 

Calcutta  via  London   11,120  24 

Cape  Town,  via  London 11,245  25. 

Constantinople,  via  London 5,810  11 

Florence,  via  London 4,800  9 

Glasgow    3,370  8 

Grey  town,  via  New  Orleans 2,815  7 

Halifax,   N.   S 645 

Hamburg,  via  London  4,340  9 

Hamburg,   direct   4,820  9 

Havana    1,366 

Hong  Kong,  via  San  Francisco 10,590  27 

Honolulu,  via  San  Francisco 5,645  12 

Liverpool    3,540 

London,  via  Queenstown  3,740 

London,   via   Southampton    3,760  8 

Madrid,  via  London  4,925  9 


POSTAL  DISTANCES  AND  TIME  319 

By  Postal  Route  to                                               Miles  Days 

Melbourne,  via  Vancouver  12,265  30 

Mexico   City    (railroad) 3,750  5 

Panama     2,355  6 

Paris     4,020  8 

Rio  de  Janeiro  6,204  17 

Rome,  via  London  5,030  9 

Rotterdam,    via   London 3,935  8 

St.  Petersburg,  via  London 5,730  9 

San  Juan,   Porto  Rico 1,730  6 

Shanghai,  via  San  Francisco 9,920  25 

Stockholm,  via  London 4,975  10 

Sydney,  via  Vancouver  11,570  29 

Valparaiso,  via  Panama 5,910  22 

Vienna,  via  London 4,740  9 

Yokohama,  via  San  Francisco 7,345  20 


320  GENERAL  INFORMATION 

GENERAL  INFORMATION 


LEGAL   HOLIDAYS 

Legal  holidays  are  days  set  apart  by  statute  or  by 
•executive  authority  for  fasting  and  prayer,  or  those 
given  over  to  religious  observance  and  amusements,  or 
for  political,  moral,  or  social  duties  or  anniversaries,  or 
merely  for  popular  recreation  and  amusement  under  such 
penalties  and  provisions  alone  as  are  expressed  in 
positive  legislative  enactments. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  no  established  holidays 
of  a  religious  character  having  a  legal  status  without 
legislation.  The  days  established  by  statutory  or  by 
executive  authority,  which  are  observed  as  legal  holi- 
days, are  given  in  the  list  that  follows: 

January  1.  New  Year's  Day:  In  all  the  states  and 
territories  except  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire. 

January  8.  Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans: 
In  Louisiana. 

January  19.  Lee's  Birthday:  In  Alabama,  Florida, 
•Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Virginia. 

February  12.  Lincoln's  Birthday:  In  Arizona,  Connecti- 
cut, Colorado,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania,  Washington,  and 
Wyoming. 

February  22.  Washington's  Birthday:  In  all  the  states 
and  territories  except  Mississippi  and  New  Mexico. 

March  2.     Texas  Independence  Day:    In  Texas. 

April  6.     Confederate  Memorial  Day:     In  Louisiana. 

April  19.     Patriot's  Day:     In  Massachusetts. 

April  21.  Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  San  Jacinto:  In 
Texas. 

•     April  26.    Confederate    Memorial    Day.       In    Alabama, 
Florida,  and  Georgia. 

May  10.  Confederate  Memorial  Day:  In  North  Caro- 
lina and  South  Carolina. 


GENERAL  INFORMATION  321 

May,  Second  Friday.  Confederate  Memorial  Day:  In 
Tennessee. 

May  20.  Anniversary  of  the  Signing  of  the  Mecklenburg 
Declaration  of  Independence:  In  North  Carolina. 

May  30.  Decoration  Day:  In  all  the  states  and  terri- 
tories except  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Idaho,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  New  Mexico,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Texas,  and  Virginia. 

June  3.  Jefferson  Davis' s  Birthday:  In  Alabama,  Florida, 
Georgia,  and  South  Carolina. 

July  4.    Independence  Day:    In  all  states  and  territories. 

July  24.    Pioneer's  Day:    In  Utah. 

August  16.     Bennington  Battle  Day:  In  Vermont. 

September,  First  Monday.  Labor  Day:  In  all  the 
states  and  territories  except  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Mis- 
sissippi, Nevada,  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma, 
and  Vermont. 

September  9.     Admission  Day:     In  California. 

October  12.  Columbus  Day:  In  California,  Colorado, 
Connecticut,  Maryland,  Missouri,  Montana,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  and  Pennsylvania. 

October  31.    Admission  Day:    In  Nevada. 

November  1.     All  Saints'  Day:    In  Louisiana. 

November  25.  Labor  Day:  In  the  parish  of  Orleans, 
Louisiana. 

November,  Fourth  Thursday.  Thanksgiving  Day:  In 
all  the  states  and  territories.  The  exact  day  is  fixed 
by  the  proclamation  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States  and  the  governors  of  the  states. 

December  25.  Christmas  Day:  In  all  the  states  and 
territories. 

Shrove  Tuesday.  Mardi  Gras:  In  Alabama  and  in  the 
parish  of  Orleans,  Louisiana. 

Good  Friday:  In  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Min- 
nesota, Pennsylvania,  and  Tennessee. 

Arbor  Day:  In  Colorado,  third  Friday  in  April;  Idaho, 
last  Monday  in  April;  in  Nebraska,  April  22;  Utah, 
April  15.  This  day  is  observed  in  other  states  on  dates 
appointed  by  the  governors. 


322  GENERAL  INFORMATION 

General  Election  Day,  being  the  Tuesday  after  the  first 
Monday  of  November  in  every  year  when  such  elections 
are  held  is  a  holiday  in  Arizona,  California,  Florida, 
Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Louisiana,  Maryland, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Ore- 
gon, Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  South 
Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Washington,  West  Virginia, 
Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming. 

Sundays  are  holidays,  and  also  any  day  appointed  by 
the  governor  in  any  of  the  several  states  as  a  fast  day, 
or  a  day  for  prayer.  There  are  no  statutory  holidays  in 
Mississippi,  but  by  common  consent  the  Fourth  of  July, 
Thanksgiving  Day,  and  Christmas  are  observed  as  such. 
In  Kansas  the  only  legal  holidays  by  legislative  enact- 
ment are  February  22,  May  30,  first  Monday  of  Septem- 
ber, and  Thanksgiving  Day,  but  by  common  consent 
New  Year's  Day,  Fourth  of  July,  and  Christmas  are  also 
observed. 

Saturday,  after  12  o'clock  noon,  is  a  legal  holiday 
throughout  the  year  in  Connecticut,  District  of  Columbia, 
Florida,  Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan, 
Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Washington;  in  Louisiana  and  Missouri,  in 
cities  of  100,000  inhabitants  and  over;  in  Ohio  and  Vir- 
ginia, in  cities  of  50,000  inhabitants  and  over;  in  Dela- 
ware, in  the  city  of  Wilmington  and  in  Newcastle 
county,  except  St.  George's  Hundred,  where  Saturdays 
from  June  to  September  only  are  holidays;  in  South 
Carolina,  in  Charleston  county;  and  in  Colorado,  in 
Denver  during  June,  July,  and  August. 

Holidays  falling  on  Sunday  are  observed  the  day  be- 
fore in  Kansas,  Mississippi,  Nevada,  Vermont,  and  West 
Virginia,  and  on  the  same  day  in  Louisiana;  but  else- 
where in  the  United  States,  on  the  following  Monday. 

In  Canada  the  following  are  legal  holidays  in  all  the 
provinces:  New  Year's  Day,  Good  Friday,  Easter  Mon- 
day, Christmas  Day,  the  birthday  of  the  reigning  sov- 
ereign, any  day  appointed  by  proclamation  for  a  public 


CORRESPONDENCE  •        323 

holiday  or  a  general  fast  or  thanksgiving,  and  the  day 
next  following  New  Year's,  Christmas,  and  the  sov- 
ereign's birthday,  when  these  days  fall  on  Sunday.  In 
Quebec,  in  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  are  ob- 
served: The  Epiphany,  the  Annunciation,  the  Ascension, 
Corpus  Christi,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul's  Day,  All  Saints' 
Day,  and  Conception  Day. 

In  England  and  Ireland  the  bank  holidays  are:  Good 
Friday,  Easter  Monday,  the  Monday  in  Whitsun  week, 
the  first  Monday  in  August,  sovereign's  birthday,  Christ- 
mas, and  the  26th  of  December  if  a  week  day;  in  Scot- 
land, New  Year's  Day,  Christmas  (if  either  day  fall  on 
Sunday,  then  the  following  Monday),  Good  Friday,  first 
Monday  in  May,  first  Monday  in  August,  and  the  sov- 
ereign's birthday.  In  addition  to  the  above,  any  day  so 
proclaimed  by  the  reigning  sovereign  is  to  be  observed 
as  a  bank  holiday  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  or 
in  any  part  thereof. 


CORRESPONDENCE 


LETTER  WRITING 

The  importance  of  letter  writing,  both  in  business  and 
as  an  educational  accomplishment,  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. Business  must,  to  a  large  extent,  be  transacted 
by  means  of  correspondence;  and  one  of  the  leading 
requisites  of  business  success  is  the  ability  to  dis- 
charge the  important  duties  pertaining  to  correspondence 
in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  all  concerned. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  letter  are: 

1.  Heading,  including  date. 

2.  Address. 

3.  Salutation. 

4.  Body. 

5.  Complimentary  close. 

6.  Subscription,   or   signature. 

7.  Superscription,    or   outside   address. 


324  CORRESPONDENCE 

The  incidental  parts  are: 

1.  The  postscript,  with  its  continuations  or  iterations, 
paulo-postscript,  post-paulo-postscript,  and  so  on. 

2.  Nota  bene. 

3.  Enclosure. 

4.  Stamp. 

5.  Return   directions. 

The  writing  of  the  place  and  date  at  the  lower  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  paper,  at  the  end  of  a  letter,  though 
quite  admissible  and  somewhat  customary  in  the  matter 
of  social  letters,  is,  in  the  case  of  business  letters, 
annoying  to  those  that  desire  to  note  at  once  the  date 
of  the  letter.  It  is  better  not  to  indulge  in  any  eccen- 
tricities in  such  matters.  For  people  that  do  not  have 
anything  else  to  do  it  may  be  allowable;  but  busy 
people  do  not  have  time  to  look  in  unusual  places  for 
headings,  addresses,  signatures,  etc. 

The  salutation  is  the  greeting,  as  "Dear  Sir,"  "Sir," 
"My  dear  George,"  and  the  like,  with  which  it  is  usual 
to  begin  a  letter.  What  the  salutation  shall  be  must  be 
determined,  of  course,  by  the  relation  between  the  writer 
and  the  party  addressed.  The  most  formal,  private,  or 
unofficial  salutations  are  "Sir"  and  "Madame."  These  are 
almost  impersonal  and  belong  to  such  persons  as  we  may 
wish  to  accost  with  civility.  "Sir"  is  the  correct  salu- 
tation in  addressing  officers  of  the  government  who  have 
no  special  title  inherent  in  the  office  they  hold.  When 
it  is  used  the  complimentary  close  should  be  "Yours 
respectfully,"  or  something  correspondingly  distant. 

General  Form.— The  following  letter  shows  the  usual 
arrangement  of  the  various  parts  of  an  ordinary  business 
letter.  If  the  street  address  is  given  in  the  heading,  the 
heading  and  date  should  be  written  in  two  lines;  if 
the  street  address  is  not  given,  the  heading  and  date 
should  be  written  in  one  line.  The  address,  if  of  more 
than  two  lines,  should  be  neatly  balanced.  A  colon 
should  follow  the  salutation;  a  dash  is  often  used  after 
the  colon,  but  this  is  unnecessary. 


CORRESPONDENCE 


325 


(Heading  and  Date) 
540  Sewell  St.,  PORTLAND,  ME., 
(Address,  Febntty  22,  1912. 

MR.   JOHN   W.    P&AYFAIK, 
President  First  National  Bank, 
*58  Jackson  Boulevard, 

Chicago,  111. 
(Salutation) 
DEAR  SIR: 

(Body) 

Mr.  George  Williams  of  your  city  has  called  to  interest 
me  in  the  purchase  of  a  large  tract  of  timber  and  mining 
lands  in  Northern  Wisconsin.  Mr.  Williams  impresses 
me  favorably,  and  his  propositions  appear  quite  reason- 
able on  their  face. 

Miave,  however,  deferred  giving  him  a  final  answer 
until  I  hear  from  you  regarding  his  standing  in  business 
circles  in  Chicago.  He  speaks  of  you  as  an  acquaintance, 
and  since  I  claim  you  as  a  friend,  your  advice  will  be 
as  welcome  as  it  must  be  valuable. 

(Complimentary  Close) 
I  am,  dear  sir, 

Very  sincerely  yours, 
(Signature) 

WILLIAM    HUTCHESON. 

The  superscription  is  the  outside  address — the  one  writ- 
ten on  the  envelope,  and  the  one  for  the  postmaster  and 


Return  in  5  days  to 
540  Sewell  St., 
Portland,  Me. 


Stamp 


MR.  JOHN  W.  PLAYFAIR, 
President  First  National  Bank, 
558  Jackson  Boulevard, 

Chicagro,  111. 


326  CORRESPONDENCE 

the  letter  carrier  to  note.  Like  the  address,  the  super- 
scription consists  of  three  parts:  the  name,  the  title,  and 
the  business  address  or  residence. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  a  specimen  su- 
perscription. 

SUGGESTIONS 

The  first  and  most  important  rule  to  be  observed  by 
writer  of  a  letter  is  to  be  courteous. 

Neatness. — Always    be    careful,    in    the    writing    of 
letter,  to  avoid  blots,  corrections,  or  erasures.    Make  tl 
letter   perfect   as   to   neatness,   even   if  it  has   to   be 
written.      An    essential    as     important    as     neatness 
correct  spelling. 

Brevity.— One  of  the  essential  qualities  of  business 
correspondence  that  cannot  be  too  strongly  dwelt  upon 
is  brevity,  for  business  men  have  no  time  to  waste,  and 
appreciate  conciseness  of  expression.  Brevity  of  ex- 
pression, if  combined  with  neatness,  clearness,  and 
courtesy  always  makes  a  good  impression  upon  the 
true  business  man.  One  of  the  greatest  helps  to  success 
in  any  walk  of  life  is  the  ability  to  express  ideas  ac-_ 
curately  and  concisely. 

Deliberation.— No  one  should  write  a  letter  when 
angry,  nor,  as  a  rule,  when  inclined  to  say  severe 
things.  If  one  receives  a  letter  provoking  him  to  anger, 
it  is  better  to  wait  a  little  before  answering;  then 
probably  the  style  of  his  reply  will  be  entirely  changed. 
Words  hastily  spoken,  and  letters  written  in  haste 
or  anger,  one  usually  would  like  to  recall.  Hasty  or 
vindictive  words  make  enemies  and  endanger  business, 
while  kind  words  make  and  hold  friends.  Make  it  a 
rule  never  to  write  a  letter  when  strongly  excited. 

Many  writers  experience  difficulty  in  the  opening  and 
closing  sentences  of  a  letter.  The  opening  should  be 
perfectly  natural  and  should  introduce  the  subject  upper- 
most in  the  mind.  Avoid  in  the  opening  such  set 
phrases  as  "I  now  take  my  pen  in  hand  to  tell  you  that 
I  am  well,  etc.,"  "I  thought  I  would  drop  you  a  line 
to  let  you  know,  etc."  A  familiar  letter  usually,  ends 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  327 

with  an  expression  of  compliment  or  affection  in  addition 
to  the  complimentary  close. 

Promptness  of  Answers.— From  the  standpoint  of  the 
recipient  of  the  letter,  correspondence  demands  close  and 
courteous  attention.  Letters,  especially  business  letters, 
should  be  answered  with  reasonable  promptness. 

Date  of  Letter  Answered.— The  answer  to  a  business 
letter  should  contain  a  reference  to  the  date  of  the  letter 
answered;  thus,  "In  answer  to  your  letter  of  the  10th. 
inst/' 

Enclosing  Stamp.— A  letter  asking  a  favor  or  treating 
of  business  in  which  only  the  writer  and  not  the  re- 
cipient is  interested,  should  have  a  stamp  enclosed  for 
an  answer. 

Legibility. — Do  not  write  so  that  your  correspondent 
will  be  unable  to  read  your  letter,  or  meet  with  great 
difficulty  in  so  doing.  Sign  your  name  to  the  letter, 
so  that  there  can  be  no  possible  doubt  as  to  the  spelling. 
Some  business  men  cultivate  a  characteristic  signature, 
which  they  use  for  checks  and  business  papers.  Such 
a  signature  is  often  purposely  almost  illegible,  and 
obviously  should  not  be  used  for  a  letter  except  to  a 
well-known  correspondent. 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


PREPARATION 

In  every  place  where  a  large  number  of  persons  are 
employed  and  where  accidents  are  liable  to  occur,  a 
supply  of  articles  needed  to  render  first  aid  should  be 
available.  These  should  include  one  or  more  stretchers, 
bandages,  absorbent  cotton,  carron  oil  (equal  parts  of 
raw  linseed  oil  and  lime  water),  splints,  soap,  towels, 
blankets,  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  etc.  The  neces- 
sary quantity  of  any  of  these  or  other  articles  depends 
on  the  nature  and  size  of  the  works. 


328  FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 

Sterilizing.— Many  disease  germs  may  be  killed  by 
heat;  others  by  chemicals  called  disinfectants,  such  as 
bichloride  of  mercury,  carbolic  acid,  etc.  The  solutions 
used  in  washing  wounds  should  be  made  up  of  about 
the  following  strengths:  Bichloride  of  mercury,  15  gr. 
to  1  qt.  of  water;  or,  liquid  carbolic  acid,  2  teaspoonfuls 
to  1  qt.  of  water.  The  substances  should  be  thoroughly 
dissolved  before  the  solution  is  used. 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES 

FAINTING 

Fainting,  or  swooning,  with  loss  of  sensation,  motion, 
and  consciousness,  may  result  from  a  severe  blow  or 
wound,  from  loss  of  blood,  from  great  emotion  (extreme 
fear  or  joy),  from  electic  shock,  etc.  The  patient  be- 
comes pale,  inanimate,  and  is  in  a  condition  of  apparent 
death;  if  not  soon  relieved,  death  may  result. 

The  patient  should  be  laid  with  the  head  lower  than 
the  feet,  and  ligatures  or  bands  of  some  sort  should  be 


FIG.  1 

tied  around  the  arms  and  legs  close  to  the  body,  so  as 
to  confine  the  circulation  to  the  trunk  and  head.  The 
tongue  should  be  kept  out  of  the  throat,  in  order  to 
allow  free  access  of  air,  and  the  respiration  may  be 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


329 


helped  by  pressing  in  and  down  on  the  ribs  and  chest 
and  allowing  the  chest  to  expand  by  its  own  elasticity. 
Artificial  Respiration.— The  process  just  described  is 
one  form  of  artificial  respiration,  and  may  in  some  cases 
be  effective.  If  the  desired  results  are  not  soon  obtained, 
place  the  patient  on  his  back  with  a  pad  (a  roll  of  cloth- 
ing will  do)  under  the  back  just  below  the  shoulders, 
so  as  to  raise  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  The  patient's 
tongue  should  be  drawn  out  and  held  by  an  assistant, 
or,  it  should  be  fastened  against  the  lower  teeth  by 
a  rubber  band  passing  under  the  chin  or  clasped  be- 
tween the  patient's  teeth,  the  lower  jaw  being  held  up 
by  a  bandage  tied  over  the  head.  Grasp  the  forearms 
half  way  between  the  elbows  and  wrists,  and  draw  the 
arms  back  rather  quickly  but  steadily  in  vertical  planes 
until  they  meet  above  the  patient's  head,  as  in  Fig.  1, 
and  hold  them  thus  for  2  sec.  This  motion  draws  the 
ribs  up,  expands  the  chest,  and  air  enters.  Now  bring 
the  arms  back  to  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  press  firmly 


FIG.  2 

on  the  sides  and  front  of  the  chest  over  the  lower  ribs, 
as  in  Fig.  2;  the  object  of  this  movement  is  to  contract 
the  chest  and  force  the  air  out  of  the  lungs.     If  enough  . 
assistants  are  present,  one  can  stand  astride  the  patient 
and  press  firmly  against  the  sides  and  top  of  the  chest 


330  FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 

while  the  arms  are  held  down  along  the  sides.  This 
series  of  movements,  constituting  one  inspiration  and 
one  expiration,  should  be  repeated  about  once  every 
4  sec.,  or  fifteen  times  per  min.,  for  1^2  or  2  hr.  if 
necessary,  unless  in  the  meantime  a  physician  pro- 
nounces life  extinct.  While  working  over  the  patient 
prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of  persons,  avoid  rough 
usage,  and  do  not  allow  the  patient  to  remain  on  his 
back  unless  his  tongue  is  secured.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  the  patient  be  held  up  by  his  feet,  nor 
should  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  unless  under  medical 
direction. 

TRAUMATIC    SHOCK 

Severe  injuries  may  sometimes  result  in  traumatic 
shock  (trauma  meaning  wound),  in  which  the  victim 
appears  confused  and  listless  and  perhaps  stupefied,  but 
not  unconscious.  The  pulses  and  respiration  are  per- 
ceptible, though  feeble  and  irregular.  Sometimes  the 
bowels  move  involuntarily.  Intelligence  is  not  usually 
wholly  lost,  and  the  patient  can  be  made  to  respond  to 
questions  if  repeatedly  urged.  This  condition  may  last 
a  few  moments  or  several  hours,  and  may  terminate  in 
death. 

Place  the  patient  in  a  horizontal  position  with  head 
lowered,  and  warm  him  by  rubbing  and  by  using  warm 
linen  or  blankets.  Let  him  inhale  the  odor  from  dilute 
ammonia  water.  If  he  can  swallow,  give  a  little  hot 
brandy  and  water  with  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  water 
added;  1  teaspoonful  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in 
a  wineglassful  of  water  is  also  good.  From  2  to  4  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  turpentine  in  a  quart  of  water,  as  hot  as 
may  be  used  without  discomfort,  may  be  injected  into 
the  bowels,  often  with  good  results. 

Wounds  consisting  of  severe  bruises  are  sometimes 
characterized  by  numbness,  coldness,  and  absence  of 
bleeding  until  reaction  begins.  In  such  cases,  use 
stimulants  and  antiseptics  and  keep  the  injured  part  as 
quiet  as  possible  and  protected  by  warm  dressing. 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


331 


HEMORRHAGE,  OR  BLEEDING 

Hemorrhage,  or  bleeding,  may  come  from  the  arteries, 
the  veins,  or  the  capillaries.  The  arteries  are  the 
channels  through  which  blood  flows  from  the  heart  to 
the  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  the  veins  are  the 
channels  through  which  the  blood  returns  to  the  heart. 
The  capillaries  form  the  network  of  very  minute  tubes 
through  which  the  blood  passes  from  the  arteries  to  the 
veins  and  by  which  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  are 
nourished. 

Arterial  hemorrhage  is  usually  distinguished  by  the 
bright  red  color  of  the  blood  and  the  regular  pulsations 
with  which  it  issues  from  the  blood  vessels;  venous 
hemorrhage  can  be  known  by  the  dark-blue  tint  of  the 
blood  and  the  steadiness  of  its  flow;  in  capillary  hemor- 
rhage, the  blood  has  a  reddish  tint  and  exudes  from  the 
tissues  or  wells  up  from  the  surface  of  the  wound. 
Internal  hemorrhage  may  exist  without  any  external  flow 
of  blood. 

After  excessive  loss  of  blood,  the  patient's  face  and 
lips  turn  pale;  he  experiences  chills,  cold  sweats,  nausea, 
frequent  vomiting,  irregular  respiration,  feeble  pulse, 
dizziness,  buzzing  in  the  ears,  and  finally  unconscious- 
ness, terminating  either  in  death  or  in  cessation  of  the 
bleeding.  In  the  latter  case,  consciousness  may  soon 
return,  but  very  often  the  tendency  to  fainting  fits 
persists  for  a  time. 

Capillary  hemorrhage  is  ar- 
rested by  bathing  the 
wounded  part  in  cold  steril- 
ized water  and  bandaging  it 
with  a  pad,  or  compress  of 
sterilized  gauze  or  lint. 

Venous  hemorrhage  is 

more  serious  and  cannot  always  be  stopped  by  binding 
a  pad  over  the  wound;  in  this  case,  the  limb  must  be 
bandaged  on  the  side  of  the  wound  away  from  the 
heart.  The  limb  should  be  raised  and  held  above  the 


FIG.  3 


332 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


rest   of  the  body   and  the  patient  should  be  made  to  lie 
perfectly    quiet. 

Arterial  hemorrhage  is  more  serious  than  either  of  the 
others.  If  a  large  artery  or  a  number  of  small  ones 
are  ruptured,  the  blood  may  escape  so  rapidly  that  death 
occurs  almost  at  once.  Pressure  enough  to  stop  the  flow 
should  be  applied  to  the  artery  where  it  passes  over  a 
bone  between  the  wound  and  the  heart.  The  location  of 
the  artery  is  revealed  by  the  distinct  pulsations.  Pres- 


FIG.  4 


sure  applied  with  the  fingers  will  answer  temporarily, 
and  this  method  affords  a  way  of  finding  the  proper 
spot  on  which  to  press.  A  knot  or  any  hard  substance, 
in  a  handkerchief  or  a  bandage  may  then  be  placed  on 
the  spot,  tied  loosely  around  the  limb,  and  twisted  with 
a  stick,  as  in  Fig.  3,  until  bleeding  ceases.  The  stick 
may  be  then  be  fastened  with  another  bandage. 

The  course  of  the  main  (brachial)  artery  in  the  arm  is 
well  indicated  by  the  inner  sleeve  seam  of  a  man's  coat; 
this  artery  can  be  compressed  by  grasping  the  arm  by 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


333 


either  method    (a)    or   (b),   Fig.   4.     The    pressure    should 
always  be  downwards  against  the  bone  and  not  against 


FIG.  6 


soft  muscle.  The  subclavian  artery  supplying  blood  to 
the  arm  may  be  closed  by  applying  pressure  in  the  hol- 
low just  above  the  collar  bone,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
The  temporal  artery  runs  up  the  side  of  the  forehead, 
and  may  be  closed  by  applying  a  pad,  as  in  Fig.  6. 
The  femoral  artery  runs  from  the  groin  down  a  little 
inside  of  the  front  of  the  leg  about  one-third  the  dis- 
tance to  the  knee,  then  passes  through  the  muscles 
and  approaches  the  surface  again  behind  the  knee. 


FIG.  8 


Pressure  applied  as  at  P,  Fig.  7,  may  stop  bleeding 
from  a  wound  above  the  knee,  and  a  pad  applied  as  in 
Fig.  8  is  applicable  for  a  wound  below  the  knee. 


334  FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 

ELECTRIC  SHOCK 

Electric  shock  may  produce  severe  burns,  unconscious- 
ness, or  death,  depending  on  the  strength  of  the  current 
through  the  body  as  well  as  on  its  duration  and  flow. 
If  the  skin  is  thin  and  moist  and  the  contacts  with  the 
conductors  good,  comparatively  low  voltage,  220  or  pos- 
sibly less,  may  be  sufficient  to  send  considerable  current 
through  the  body.  On  the  other  hand,  a  person  with 
thick,  dry  skin,  as  on  the  palms  of  the  hands,  may 
sometimes  make  slight  accidental  contact  with  a  circuit 
of  several  thousand  volts  without  serious  results.  A 
very  small  current  through  the  region  of  the  heart  may 
paralyze  its  action  and  cause  death;  currents  of  greater 
density  stimulate  the  heart  to  increased  action,  but 
paralyze  the  nerve  centers  controlling  respiration  and  may 
cause  death  by  suffocation,  the  same  as  in  drowning." 

Accidental  contact  with  an  electric  conductor  should 
be  broken  as  quickly  as  possible;  if  maintained  until 
heart  action  ceases,  as  a  result  of  suffocation,  death 
invariably  results.  In  breaking  the  contact  (provided, 
of  course,  the  power  cannot  be  immediately  turned  off 
the  circuit),  use  the  feet  to  push  the  victim  and  the 
conductor  apart — never  the  hands.  Current  passing 
from  one  foot  through  the  legs  and  the  other  foot  to 
ground  does  comparatively  little  injury,  since  the  im- 
portant nerve  centers  and  the  heart  are  not  in  its 
path.  As  soon  as  the  contact  is  broken,  the  victim,  if 
he  has  not  lost  consciousness,  soon  recovers.  If  the 
victim  is  unconscious  but  has  not  ceased  breathing,  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  revive  him,  the  same  as  in  an 
ordinary  fainting  fit.  If  respiration  has  ceased,  artificial 
respiration  should  be  tried  and  continued  for  some  time, 
even  though  the  heart  action  is  so  feeble  as  to  be  almost 
imperceptible.  The  first  and  most  important  requirement 
in  producing  respiration  by  artificial  means  is  to  hold 
the  tongue  so  that  it  cannot  obstruct  the  throat. 

Burns  caused  by  contact  with  electric  conductors 
should  be  protected  with  sterilized  gauze.  Such  burns 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  335 

are  generally  deep,  sometimes  even  carbonizing  the 
bones,  especially  those  of  the  fingers.  They  heal  quickly, 
however — ordinarily  in  from  3  to  6  weeks. 

WOUNDS 

Before  being  used  on  a  wound,  all  instruments,  band- 
ages, etc.,  should  be  sterilized  by  heating  in  steam  or 
boiling  water  or  by  baking  or  by  treating  with  a  germ- 
destroying  solution.  The  water  used  in  washing  a 
wound  should  first  be  boiled,  in  fact  nothing  unsterilized 
should  be  permitted  to  come  in  contact  with  the  wounded 
surface.  The  germs  entering  a  wound  from  the  skin  of  the 
patient  or  from  the  object  that  produced  the  wound  may 
be  removed  by  thoroughly  washing  with  sterilized  water, 
and  the  sterilized  dressings  will  prevent  further  infection. 

The  first  treatment  of  a  wound  includes  checking  the 
bleeding;  the  removal  of  all  foreign  matter  and  a 
thorough  washing;  drawing  the  lips  of  the  wound  to- 
gether or  gently  straightening  bruised  or  torn  flesh; 
applying  several  layers  of  sterilized  gauze,  with  absorb- 
ent cotton  next  the  wound  if  it  is  likely  to  bleed  or 
discharge,  and  holding  all  in  place  with  a  suitable 
bandage.  Sterilized  adhesive  strips  are  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  hold  the  wound  together. 

FRACTURES 

The  signs  of  fracture  are:  (1)  Loss  of  power  in  the 
limb,  or  part,  injured.  (2)  Pain  and  swelling  at  the 
seat  of  the  injury.  (3)  Distortion  of  the  injured  limb 
— it  will  be  longer  or  shorter  than  the  other  or  will  lie 
in  some  unnatural  position.  By  gentle  pulling,  the  limb 
may  be  brought  back  to  its  natural  shape,  but  on  being 
released  will  immediately  return  to  the  distorted  posi- 
tion. (4)  On  gently  moving  the  limb,  a  grating  sensation 
(crepitation)  may  be  felt  where  the  ends  of  the  broken 
bone  rub  against  each  other.  (5)  If  near  the  surface, 
the  break  may  be  felt  from  the  outside.  A  fracture 
should  be  handled  with  extreme  gentleness;  rough  usage 
may  do  much  harm. 


336 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 


Before    attempting    to    move    a    patient    suffering    from 
fracture,  the  injured  part  should  be  supported  in  a  rigid 


FIG.  9 

position  by  tying  on  splints.  Almost  any  substance  stiff 
enough  to  support  the  injured  part  will  answer  for  a 
temporary  splint;  for  example,  a  stocking  leg  or  a  coat 
sleeve  filled  with  earth,  sand,  moss,  hay,  chaff,  or  paper 
and  securely  tied  at  each  end,  a  barrel  stave,  a  piece 
of  board,  a  roll  of  paper,  etc.  If  hard  substances  are 
used  for  splints,  the  leg  should  be  padded.  If  feasible, 
the  splints  should  extend  past  the  nearest  joints,  and 
should  be  securely  bandaged  so  that  both  the  fracture 
and  the  joints  are  held 
rigid,  as  in  Fig.  9. 

Until  the  physician  comes, 
a  fractured  jaw  should  be 
held  in  place  by  a  bandage 
passed  under  the  chin  and 
over  the  head.  If  the  collar 
bone  is  broken,  the  arm 
should  be  raised  gently,  and 
a  pad  made  by  tightly  roll- 
ing a  handkerchief  or  a  piece 
of  cloth  should  be  placed 
in  the  armpit;  the  forearm 


FIG.  10 


should  be  supported  horizontally  across  the  chest  by  a 
large  arm  sling,  and  the  arm  and  sling  should  be  held 
firmly  in  position  by  a  broad  bandage  placed  around  the 


FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  337 

body  and  just  above  the  elbow.  Fractured  ribs  may  be 
temporarily  treated  by  fastening  broad  bandages  around 
the  body,  tying  the  knot  on  the  side  opposite  the  frac- 
ture, as  in  Fig.  LO. 

DISLOCATIONS  AND  SPRAINS 

A  dislocation  is  the  displacement  of  the  bones  of  a  joint. 
Ordinarily,  a  physician  is  needed,  and  little  can  be  done 
before  his  arrival  except  to  make  the  patient  as  com- 
fortable as  possible. 

A  sprain  should  be  kept  very  quiet.  If  possible,  keep 
the  injured  member  in  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne 
for  \l/2  hr.  or  more;  then  bandage  with  moderate  firmness 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  any  movement  of  the 
joint,  using  splints  for  this  purpose  if  necessary. 

EFFECTS  OF  HEAT 

Burns. — The  general  treatment  of  a  burn  consists  in 
relieving  the  pain,  in  combating  the  depression,  and 
increasing  the  warmth  of  the  patient.  The  pain  may 
usually  be  relieved  by  excluding  the  air  from  the  burned 
portion;  stimulants  should  be  given,  if  necessary,  to 
relieve  the  depression.  A  covering  of  flour  .may  be 
spread  over  the  burned  surface;  or  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
either  in  the  form  of  paste  or  powder,  can  be  used;  any 
oil,  such  as  sweet  oil,  raw  linseed  oil,  or  carron  oil,  or 
a  dressing,  such  as  -vaseline,  cold  cream,  etc.,  is 
effective. 

In  removing  the  clothing  from  over  a  burn  or  in 
dressing  it,  the  blisters  should  not  be  broken.  If  any 
clothing  adheres,  it  should  be  saturated  with  oil  and 
allowed  to  remain.  The  patient  should  not  be  exposed 
to  cold. 

Heat  exhaustion  is  generally  accompanied  by  weakness, 
cool  skin,  pale  face,  weak  voice,  rapid  and  feeble  pulse, 
increased  respiration,  dim  vision,  and  possibly  by  un- 
consciousness. The  patient  should  be  placed  in  a 
horizontal  position  with  the  head  low,  and  stimulants 
and  hot  applications  should  be  administered.  Occasional 
doses  of  brandy  should  be  given,  also  a  teaspoonful  of 


338  RESTORING  OF  APPARENTLY 

aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in  a  little  hot  milk  or 
water  every  half  hour.  If  the  patient,  cannot  swallow, 
these  remedies  may  be  injected  into  the  rectum. 

Sunstroke,  which  may  occur  in  any  hot,  moist  tem- 
perature, is  accompanied  by  high  fever.  In  a  few  cases, 
unconsciousness  and  death  come  very  quickly;  but 
usually  the  progressive  symptoms  are  intense  headache, 
dizziness,  oppression,  nausea,  vomiting,  occasionally 
diarrhea,  and  unconsciousness  with  delirium  and  rest- 
lessness. The  face  is  flushed,  the  eyes  bloodshot,  the 
skin  very  hot  and  dry  (temperature  from  107°  to  112°  F.), 
the  breathing  labored  and  sometimes  noisy,  and  the 
pulse  frequent  and  full. 

Both  the  symptoms  and  the  treatment  are  directly 
opposite  those  for  heat  exhaustion.  In  cases  of  sun- 
stroke, every  effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  the 
excessive  bodily  temperature.  Rubbing  with  ice,  a 
cold  bath,  a  cold  pack,  and  cold  rectal  injections  are 
all  good. 


RESTORING  OF  APPARENTLY 
DROWNED  PERSONS 


TREATMENT    WHEN    SEVERAL    ASSIST- 
ANTS ARE  AT  HAND 

As  soon  as  the  patient  is  taken  from  the  water,  expose 
the  face  to  the  air,  toward  the  wind  if  there  is  any,  and 
wipe  dry  the  mouth  and  nostrils;  rip  the  clothing  so  as 
to  expose  the  chest  and  waist,  and  give  two  or  three 
quick,  smarting  slaps  on  the  chest  with  the  open  hand. 
If  the  patient  does  not  revive,  proceed  immediately 
to  expel  water  from  the  stomach  and  chest,  as  follows: 
Separate  the  jaws  and  keep  them  apart  by  placing  be- 
tween the  teeth  a  cork  or  small  bit  of  wood;  turn  the 
patient  on  his  face,  a  large  bundle  of  tightly  rolled 
clothing  being  placed  beneath  the  stomach  (see  Fig.  1); 


DROWNED  PERSONS 


339 


press  heavily  on  the  back  over  the  stomach  for  ^  min., 
or  as  long  as  fluids  flow  freely  from  the  mouth. 

To  Produce  Breathing.— Clear  the  mouth  and  throat  of 
mucus  by  introducing  into  the  throat  the  corner  of  a 
handkerchief  wrapped  closely  around  the  forefinger; 
turn  the  patient  on  the  back,  the  roll  of  clothing  being 
so  placed  as  to  raise  the  pit  of  the  stomach  above  the 
level  of  the  rest  of  the  body  (see  Fig.  2).  Let  an 
assistant,  with  a  handkerchief  or  piece  of  dry  cloth, 
draw  the  tip  of  the  tongue  out  of  one  corner  of  the  mouth 
(which  prevents  the  tongue  from  falling  back  and 


FIG.  1 


choking  the  entrance  to  the  windpipe),  and  keep  it 
projecting  a  little  beyond  the  lips.  Let  another  assistant 
grasp  the  arms  just  below  the  elbows  and  draw  them 
steadily  upwards  by  the  side  of  the  patient's  head,  and 
to  the  ground,  the  hands  nearly  meeting  (which  enlarges 
the  capacity  of  the  chest  and  induces  inspiration). 
While  this  is  being  done,  let  a  third  assistant  take  a 
position  astride  the  patient's  hips,  with  his  elbows  rest- 
ing on  his  own  knees,  his  hands  extended  ready  for 
action.  Next,  let  the  assistant  standing  at  the  head  turn 
down  the  patient's  arms  to  the  side  of  the  body 


340  RESTORING  OF  APPARENTLY 

(see  Fig.  3),  the  assistant  holding  the  tongue  changing 
hands,  if  necessary,  to  let  the  arm  pass.  Just  before 
the  patient's  hands  reach  the  ground,  the  man  astride 
the  body  will  grasp  the  body  with  his  hands,  the  balls 
of  the  thumbs  resting  on  either  side  of  the  pit  of  the 
stomach,  the  fingers  falling  into  grooves  between  the 
short  ribs.  Now,  using  his  knees  as  a  pivot,  he  will 
at  the  moment  the  patient's  hands  touch  the  ground 
throw  (not  too  suddenly)  all  his  weight  forwards  on 
his  hands,  and  at  the  same  time  squeeze  the  waist 
between  them,  as  if  he  wished  to  force  something  in 
the  chest  upwards  out  of  the  mouth;  he  will  increase 


FIG.  2 

the  pressure  while  he  slowly  counts  one,  two,  three, 
four  (about  5  sec.),  then  suddenly  let  go  with  a  final 
push,  which  will  spring  him  back  to  his  first  position. 
This  completes  expiration. 

At  the  instant  the  pressure  is  taken  from  the  waist 
the  man  at  the  patient's  head  will  again  steadily  draw 
the  arms  upwards  to  the  sides  of  the  patient's  head,  as 
before  (the  assistant  holding  the  tongue  again  changing 
hands  to  let  the  arm  pass,  if  necessary),  holding  them 
there  while  he  slowly  counts  one,  two,  three,  four 
(about  5  sec.). 


DROWNED  PERSONS 


341 


Repeat  these  movements,  deliberately  and  persever- 
ingly,  12  to  15  times  in  every  minute — thus  imitating  the 
natural  motions  of  breathing. 

If  natural  breathing  is  not  restored  after  a  trial  of 
the  bellows  movement  for  the  space  of  about  4  min., 
then  turn  the  patient  a  second  time  on  the  stomach, 
rolling  the  body  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in 
which  it  was  first  turned,  for  the  purpose  of  freeing 
the  air  passage  from  any  remaining  water.  Continue 
the  artificial  respiration  from  1  to  4  hr.,  or  until  the 
patient  breathes,  according  to  the  preceding  instructions; 


FIG.  3 

and  for  a  time,  after  the  appearance  of  returning  life, 
carefully  aid  the  short  gasps  until  deepened  into  full 
breaths.  Continue  the  drying  and  rubbing,  which  should 
have  been  unceasingly  practiced  from  the  beginning  by 
assistants,  taking  care  not  to  interfere  with  the  means 
used  to  produce  breathing.  Thus,  the  limbs  of  the 
patient  should  be  rubbed,  always  in  an  upward  direction 
toward  the  body  with  firm,  grasping  pressure  and  energy, 
using  the  bare  hands,  dry  flannels,  or  handkerchiefs,  and 
continuing  the  friction  under  the  blankets  or  over  the 
dry  clothing.  The  warmth  of  the  body  can  also  be 
promoted  by  the  application  of  hot  flannels  to  the 


342  RESTORING  OF  APPARENTLY 

stomach  and  armpits  and  bottles  or  bladders  of  hot  wa- 
ter, heated  bricks,  etc.  to  the  limbs  and  soles  of  the  feet. 

After  Treatment.— When  breathing  has  been  estab- 
lished, let  the  patient  be  stripped  of  all  wet  clothing, 
wrapped  in  blankets  only,  put  to  bed  comfortably 
warm,  but  with  free  circulation  of  fresh  air,  and  left  to 
perfect  rest.  Give  whisky,  or  brandy,  and  hot  water 
in  doses  of  a  teaspoonful,  or  a  tablespqonful,  according 
to  the  weight  of  the  patient,  or  any  other  stimulant  at 
hand,  every  10  or  15  min.  for  the  first  hour,  and  as 
often  thereafter  as  may  seem  expedient.  After  reaction 
is  fully  established,  there  is  great  danger  of  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs,  and  if  perfect  rest  is  not  maintained 
for  at  least  48  hr.  it  sometimes  occurs  that  the  patient 
is  seized  with  great  difficulty  of  breathing,  and  death 
is  liable  to  follow  unless  immediate  relief  is  afforded. 
In  such  cases,  apply  a  large  mustard  plaster  over  the 
breast.  If  the  patient  gasps  for  breath  before  the 
mustard  takes  effect,  assist  the  breathing  by  carefully 
repeating  the  artificial  respiration. 

The  foregoing  treatment  should  be  persevered  in  for 
some  hours,  as  it  is  an  erroneous  opinion  that  persons 
are  irrecoverable  because  life  does  not  soon  make  its 
appearance. 


MODIFICATION   OF  TREATMENT 

To  Produce  Respiration.— If  no  assistant  is  at  hand 
and  one  person  must  work  alone,  place  the  patient  on 
his  back  with  the  shoulders  slightly  raised  on  a  folded 
article  of  clothing;  draw  forward  the  tongue  and  keep 
it  projecting  just  beyond  the  lips;  if  the  lower  jaw 
be  lifted,  the  teeth  may  be  made  to  hold  the  tongue  in 
place;  it  may  be  necessary  to  retain  the  tongue  by  pass- 
ing a  handkerchief  under  the  chin  and  tying  it  over 
the  head.  Grasp  the  arms  just  below  the  elbows  and 
steadily  draw  them  upwards  by  the  sides  of  the  patient's 
head  to  the  ground,  the  hands  nearly  meeting,  as  shown 


DROWNED  PERSONS 


343 


in    Fig.     1.      Next,    lower    the    arms    to    the    sides    and 
press    firmly    downwards   and   inwards   on   the   sides   and 


FIG.  1 


front  of  the  chest  over  the  lower  ribs,  drawing  toward 
the  patient's  head,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Repeat  these 
movements  12  to  15  times  every  minute,  etc. 


FIG.  2 

Remarks. — Prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of  persons 
round  the  body,  especially  if  in  an  apartment. 

Under  no  circumstances  hold  the  body  up  by  the  feet. 

On  no  account  place  the  body  in  a  warm  bath,  unless 
under  medical  direction,  and  even  then  it  should  be 
employed  only  as  a  momentary  excitant. 


MEMORANDA 


N1KN1ORANDA 


MEMORANDA 


N1KMORANDA 


MEMORANDA. 


MEMORANDA 


Secured 
Through  the 

POULTRY  FARMING 

Poultry  Breeding 

General  Farming 

Soil  Improvement 

Farm  Crops 

LIVESTOCK  AND  DAIRYING 

COURSES  OF  INSTRUCTION 
OF  THE 

International 
Correspondence  Schools 

International  Textbook 
Company,    Proprietors 

SCRANTON,  PA.,  U.  S.  A. 


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AN  I.C.S.  COURSE  TURNS  FAILURE  INTO  SUCCESS 

S.  A.  EMERICK,  733  W.  2d  St.,  Shelbyville,  Ind.:  "The 
day  that  the  I.C.S.  knocked  at  my  door,  I  was  not  in 
any  position  to  make  money,  in  fact  I  was  not  fit  for 
anything.  The  day  I  enrolled  for  my  Poultry  Farming 
Course  was  the  best  day  of  my  life,  for  it  has  made  a 
man  of  me.  I  am  now  my  own  employer,  being  the 
owner  of  "The  Natural  Poultry  Yard,"  having  taken  up 
the  breeding  of  utility  birds  and  breeding  for  egg  pro- 
duction. The  Lesson  Papers  of  my  Course  are  my  busi- 
ness guides.  Any  one  who  will  follow  the  instructions 
as  set  forth  in  the  Course  cannot  help  but  succeed,  for 
the  Lesson  Papers  are  easy  to  understand  and  to  remem- 
ber. Any  one  who  thinks  of  going  into  the  poultry  busi- 
ness should  first  let  the  I.C.S.  prepare  them  for  success." 

AN  I.C.S.  COURSE  IS  BEST 

A.  E.  EASTMAN,  47  Birch  St.,  Manchester,  N.  H.:  "Your 
Course  in  Poultry  Farming  treats  the  subject  thoroughly 
in  all  its  branches.  Although  I  have  read  many  poultry 
books  and  am  a  subscriber  to  several  poultry  papers,  I 
received  many  valuable  suggestions  from  the  Course  that 
I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  from  any  other  source.  I 
can  cheerfully  recommend  your  Course  of  instruction  to 
*  any  one  desiring  a  full  knowledge  of  poultry  raising." 

A  PRIZE  WINNER 

FRED  T.  BEDURTHA,  164  Crescent  St.,  Athol,  Mass.:  "I 
was  a  mechanic  at  the  time  I  enrolled  with  the  I.C.S.  for 
the  Poultry  Farming  Course.  I  take  pleasure  in  recom- 
mending this  to  the  experienced  poultryman,  as  well  as 
to  the  novice.  I  found  your  Course  interesting  and  prac- 
tical, covering  the  subject  in  a  most  thorough  manner. 
From  it  I  have  acquired  much  knowledge  that  years  of 
practical  experience  did  not  reveal.  I  have  won  prizes 
at  some  of  the  leading  shows,  including  three  consecu- 
tive years  at  Boston." 

A  GRADUATE'S  SUCCESS 

W.  A.  SLATER,  Box  115,  Jamestown,  N.  Y. :  "Your 
I.C.S.  Poultry  Course  I  found  very  practical  and  a  benefit 
to  me  in  many  ways.  When  I  started  into  the  chicken 
business,  the  second  year  I  lost  50  per  cent,  of  my  stock. 
After  graduating  from  your  Course,  I  have  this  year 
raised  95  per  cent,  of  the  chicks  hatched  and  have  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  more  eggs  from  my  flock  than  ever 
before.  I  am  now  manager  of  Slater's  Poultry  Farm." 

3 


Failed  Repeatedly — Now 
Successful 

I  cannot  recommend  your  Course  in  Poultry 
Husbandry  too  highly,  as  it  has  made  me  a  suc- 
cess after  repeated  failures.  It  is  the  most 
complete  Course  in  Poultry  Husbandry  that 
has  ever  come  to  my  notice.  It  covers  every 
branch  and  detail  of  poultry  farming.  I  have 
bought  about  every  book  advertised,  the  writers 
of  which  gave  an  outline  of  how  they  ran  their 
farms  but  stopped  at  the  gate,  but  your  Course 
taught  me  how  to  raise  my  own  poultry  and  run 
my  little  farm.  Your  Course  taught  me  what 
to  do  and  why  to  do  it.  I  am  no  longer  in  the 
dark  concerning  poultry.  My  hens  laid  70  per 
cent,  more  eggs  in  the  first  half  of  this  year 
than  they  ever  laid  in  a  whole  year  before. 
Your  lessons  on  diseases  of  poultry  have  saved 
many  a  growing  chick  for  me  this  season.  My 
loss  of  young  chicks  this  season  through  natural 
causes  has  been  less  than  7  per  cent,  of  all  chicks 
hatched.  Last  season  my  loss  from  natural 
causes  was  about  60  per  cent. 

Every  person  that  contemplates  going  into 
the  poultry  business,  or  those  who  have  failed, 
should  enroll  in  your  Schools,  for  it  will  make 
one  a  success  from  the  start,  and  it  will  make  a 
success  out  of  a  failure. 

WM.  T.  SCHEIDE, 

R.  F.  D.  1,  Lima,  Ohio. 


AN  I.C.S.  COURSE  WOULD  HAVE  SAVED  HIM  $5,601 
WALTER  B.  DAVIS,  Davis  Poultry  Farm,  Kings  High- 
way, E.  23d  St.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. :  "I  have  about  com- 
pleted your  Course  on  Poultry  Farming  and  I  beg  to 
state  that  I  consider  it  the  greatest  asset  a  poultry 
farmer  can  have  to  begin  with.  It  covers  the  details  in 
every  way.  From  my  own  personal  experience  I  can 
safely  say  that  had  I  been  familiar  with  this  Course  a 
year  ago  I  would  have  saved  $5,000  on  my  poultry  farm. 
(This  figure  is  a  conservative  estimate.)" 

DOUBLES    HIS    SALARY 

PAUL  GELUK,  c/o  Patterson  Ranch,  Oxnard,  Calif.:  "I 
was  a  foreman  in  the  Dundee  Chemical  Works  when  I 
decided  to  enroll  for  the  Complete  Poultry  Course.  At 
the  present  time  I  have  charge  of  the  Poultry  Depart- 
ment for  the  Patterson  Ranch  Company  at  Oxnard,  Calif. 
My  salary  since  the  time  of  enrolment  has  been  doubled. 
While  I  did  not  have  much  education  before  enrolling,  I 
experienced  no  difficulty,  as  your  Lesson  Papers  are 
easy  to  learn.  All  the  advancement  I  have  made  is  en- 
tirely through  my  I.C.S.  Course,  as  I  never  handled  any 
poultry  before  I  took  charge  here." 

A  CITY  MAN'S  SUCCESS 

J.  K.  SHAUGHNESSY,  Federal  St.,  Agawam,  Mass.:  "I 
had  always  hankered  for  country  life  and  chickens.  If 
any  man  will  invest  in  the  I.C.S.  Poultry  Farming  Course 
he  will  have  no  trouble  to  make  a  success  of  the  busi- 
ness. My  present  position,  secured  through  your  Stu- 
dents' Aid  Department,  is  that  of  manager  and  half 
owner  of  the  Sanitary  Poultry  Yards.  We  have  a  ca- 

fcity   of  1,600  layers   and  expect  to   increase  each   year, 
am   dry   picking   all    my   market    stock    and   am   getting 
ten    cents    more    per    pound    than    any    man    arounpl    this 
section  and  also  top  prices  for  my  eggs." 

GAINED  A  POSITION  AS  MANAGER 

C.  W.  LARSON,  R.  F.  D.  Xo.  3,  Box  40- A,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.:  "I  was  working  as  a  clerk  when  I  enrolled  with 
the  I.C.S.  for  the  Poultry  Farming  Course.  I  would 
strongly  advise  any  one  who  contemplates  going  into  the 
poultry  industry  to  take  up  this  Course  which  will  assure 
him  all  success.  It  was  because  I  was  known  to  be  a 
student  of  your  Course  that  I  was  able  to  secure  a  posi- 
tion as  manager  of  the  Victoria  Poultry  Farm,  an  up-to- 
date  plant,  at  a  good  salary.  You  are  at  liberty  to  refer 
prospective  students  to  me." 


The  I.  C.  S.  a  Public 
Benefactor 

I  have  just  received  my  Diploma  in  your 
Agricultural  Course,  and  am  much  pleased 
with  the  painstaking  manner  in  which  my 
Instruction  Papers  were  handled  by  your  people. 
The  proposition,  in  a  nutshell,  is  that,  if  the 
student  does  his  (or  her)  part,  the  I.  C.  S.  will 
do  theirs. 

The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a  Course  in 
Agriculture  in  the  I.  C.  S.  are  manifold;  the 
most  important,  perhaps,  is  that  it  teaches  the 
tiller  of  the  soil  to  grow  not  only  a  better  crop, 
but  realize  a  greater  production,  as  well  as  to 
do  it  with  a  great  deal  less  of  labor  and  expense, 
thereby  making  the  tilling  of  the  soil  more  of 
a  pleasure  than  a  drudge.  Farmers,  as  well 
as  others,  are  waking  up  to  the  truth  that 
scientific  farming  is  the  only  proper  method  to 
pursue,  especially  in  these  days  of  worn-out 
land,  problems  of  drainage,  and  other  things 
too  numerous  to  mention.  In  this  connection, 
your  instruction  on  manures  is  worth  the  price 
of  the  whole  Course.  I  might  say  the  same  of 
your  instruction  on  drainage,  etc. 

I  have  endeavored  to  make  my  letter  brief, 
but,  on  account  of  the  great  scope  or  mag- 
nitude of  your  Agricultural  Course,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  say  it  all  upon  a  hundred  sheets 
of  paper  of  this  size. 

Any  one  who  can  show  how  two  plants  can 
be  grown  where  but  one  could  be  made  to  grow 
before,  and  with  less  labor,  expense,  etc.,  is  no 
less  than  a  public  benefactor,  and  this  you  do 
in  your  Agricultural  Course. 

WAYNE  CANFIELD 
84  Madison  St.,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa. 


PAID  FOR  HIS  COURSE  WITH  15  HENS 

WILBUR  H.  DRESHER,  Jeddo,  Pa.,  writes  that  he  has 
been  able,  through  the  knowledge  gained  from  our 
Poultry  Farming  Course,  to  make  15  hens  pay  the  price 
of  his  Course  in  less  than  1  year.  He  praises  the  Schools 
for  teaching  him  how  to  reduce  his  feed  bills  through 
scientific  feeding,  and  for  showing  him  how  to  take  care 
of  the  health  of  his  flock. 

LABORER  BECOMES  SUPERINTENDENT 

F.  B.  OLIVER,  Smithville  Flats,  X.  Y. :  "I  have  been 
employed  in  the  poultry  business  nearly  the  entire  time 
since  I  enrolled  in  the  I.C.S.  for  the  Poultry  Farming 
Course  and  my  salary  has  been  increased  from  $26  to 
$75  a  month.  I  have  likewise  advanced  from  a  farm 
laborer  to  superintendent  of  a  poultry  plant.  My  Course 
has  been  so  very  beneficial  to  me  that  I  intend  to  enroll 
for  the  Agricultural  Course." 

PRAISES   COURSE 

D.  S.  FERGUSOX,  Manager,  Deep  Fork  Dairy,  Okmulgee, 
Okla.:  "I  have  taken  a  Course  in  Soil  Improvement, 
Farm  Crops,  Livestock  and  Dairying  with  the  Interna- 
tional Correspondence  Schools  and  can  truly  recommend 
same  to  any  one  who  wishes  to  take  up  such  a  Course.  I 
owe  what  I  am  to  the  Course  and  am  sure  any  one  may 
be  benefited  the  same  as  myself.  It  does  not  require  a 
college  education  to  take  a  Course  with  this  School,  as 
they  are  willing  to  help  you  with  anything  you  do  not 
fully  understand.  Give  them  a  trial  and  be  convinced." 

NOW  PROPRIETOR 

RAY  L.  CHAMBERLIN,  Box  49,  North  New  Salem,  Mass., 
was  working  for  $40  a  month  when  he  enrolled  for  the 
Complete  Poultry  Course.  Since  receiving  his  Diploma 
he  has  become  manager  and  half  owner  of  the  Wyolette 
Poultry  Yards.  He  declares  that  the  lessons  on  diseases 
and  enemies  of  poultry  are  worth  the  price  of  the  whole 
Course;  also,  that  the  lesson  on  poultry  feeding  has 
made  a  big  increase  in  his  egg  yields. 

NOW    MANAGER 

WM.  M.  FRESHLEY,  R.  F.  D.  2,  Box  113,  Berea,  Ohio, 
declares  that  he  has  gained  considerable  help  from  his 
I.C.S.  Poultry  Farming  Course.  He  is  now  manager  for 
H.  Cecil  Sheppard,  originator  of  Sheppard's  Famous  An- 
conas.  He  recommends  the  Course  to  poultrymen  as  well 
as  to  beginners. 


Salary  More  Than 
Doubled 

E.  A.  BAKER,  Proprietor      F.W.  EASTMAN,  Manager 
P.  O.  Box,  2898  Greensboro 

Boston,  Mass.  Vermomt 


BAKER  FARM,  GREENSBORO,  VERMONT 
Pure  Bred  Holstein  Cattle 


At  the  time  I  enrolled  with  the  I.C.S. 
I  was  working  as  a  farm  hand  at  $30  per 
month  and  in  two  years'  time  my  present 
position  came  to  me  at  a  salary  more  than 
twice  that  and  a  share  in  the  profits.  I 
cannot  recommend  the  I.C.S.  too  highly. 
I  have  two  students  of  the  School  in  my 
employ  and  both,  I  feel  sure,  will  succeed. 
F.  W.  EASTMAN 


HIS   COURSE    BROUGHT   SUCCESS 

OBLETON  R.  REID,  Wofford,  Ky.:  "I  have  been  en- 
gaged in  the  poultry  business  for  some  years,  without 
much  success  at  first.  Every  year  I  would  lose  from  200 
to  300  young  chickens.  I  was  just  stumbling  along  in 
the  dark.  Then  I  enrolled  for  your  Complete  Poultry 
Course.  I  consider  this  the  best  investment  I  ever  made 
and  advise  any  person  who  enters  the  poultry  business 
to  take  a  Course  from  the  I.C.S.  first.  The  knowledge 
that  I  have  gained  from  your  instruction  has  put  me  on 
the  road  to  success.  Instead  of  heavy  losses  I  have  this 
year,  up  to  this  time,  lost  only  eight  or  ten  chicks,  and 
I  have  now  (June  9th)  about  four  hundred  broilers  ready 
for  market." 


FOUND  COURSE  A  MONEY  SAVER 

ERNEST  STARTUP,  840  Whitney  Ave.,  New  Haven,  Conn., 
began  his  I.C.S.  studies  while  employed  as  a  butler.  He 
writes:  "Having  kept  a  small  flock  of  fowls  as  a  side 
line  with  some  degree  of  success,  I  became  determined  to 
start  a  poultry  farm  of  my  own.  In  order  to  obtain  more 
knowledge  on  the  subject  I  enrolled  for  the  Special 
Poultry  Course.  Now,  although  only  half  through  the 
Course,  I  am  more  than  delighted  that  I  had  sense 
enough  to  enroll.  I  find  the  Instruction  Papers  full  of 
the  very  things  one  wants  to  know  and  they  clearly 
show  that  the  secret  of  success  is  nothing  more  than 
common  sense  and  right  methods.  I  honestly  believe 
that  had  I  started  a  poultry  farm  without  taking  this 
Course,  I  would  have  lost  more  money  in  the  first  week 
than  I  have  paid  for  the  Course." 


ADDED  $500  PROFIT 

T.  E.  CASTLE,  Virginia  City,  Mont.:  "At  the  time  I 
enrolled  with  the  International  Correspondence  Schools 
for  the  Poultry  Farming  Course,  I  was  conducting  a 
small  poultry  plant  as  a  side  issue  to  my  business  of 
editing  and  managing  a  country  newspaper.  I  had  been 
handling  poultry  for  a  number  of  years  and  thought  I 
was  pretty  well  versed  in  the  intricacies  of  the  profes- 
sion, until  I  took  up  the  study  of  my  Course.  I  have 
learned  more  than  I  ever  thought  I  knew  before  and 
have  added  $500  to  my  profits  as  proprietor  of  the  Castle 
Hennery.  It  makes  no  difference  how  much  one  may 
know  of  the  poultry  business,  if  he  will  study  your 
Course  and  apply  its  teachings  he  must  necessarily  make 
his  business  a  success." 


Found  His  Course 
Profitable 

HARRY  L.  GOODWIN,  Farmington,  Me.,  was 
a  printer  43  years  old  when  he  enrolled  with 
the  I.  C.  S.  for  the  Poultry  Farming  Course. 
At  that  time  he  was  interested  in  poultry 
and  had  been  for  years  a  writer  for  the  press. 
He  says  that  his  Course  has  enabled  him  to 
secure  much  better  results  with  Barred  Rocks, 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Indian  Runner  Ducks 
than  he  had  formerly  been  able  to  attain. 
During  the  past  year  he  has  written  61  articles 
for  publication  in  farming  and  poultry  jour- 
nals, for  which  he  is  receiving  payment,  thereby 
considerably  increasing  his  income.  He  feels 
that  his  Course  has  already  paid  for  itself  in 
more  ways  than  one,  and  that  it  has  been  a 
very  profitable  investment. 


10 


HIS  MOST  SATISFACTORY  INVESTMENT 

MARTIN  J.  RODNEY,  408  S.  Ohio  St.,  Butte,  Mont.:  "The 
I.C.S.  Course  in  Poultry  Farming  is  thorough  in  every  par- 
ticular. I  can  honestly  say  that  I  consider  the  price  I  paid 
for  the  Course  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  investments  I  ever 
made." 

WORTH  FIVE  TIMES  ITS  COST 

GEORGE  A.  VAN  VLECK,  Hollis,  L.  L,  N.  Y.:     "If  I  had  paid 

five  times  the  price  for  your  Poultry  Farming  Course,  I  would 
consider  it  one  of  my  best  investments,  since  it  has  enabled 
me  to  get  such  results  from  my  flock.  I  am  now  part  owner 
of  the  Hillside  Poultry  Yards.  No  one  needs  to  make  mis- 
takes for  lack  of  knowledge  who  has  mastered  your  Course." 


NOW  MANAGER 

ALBERT  E.  EDWARDS,  R.  F.  D.  No.  1,  Jermyn,  Pa.: 
"Although  I  left  school  at  the  age  of  eleven  to  work  in  a  grocery 
store,  I  had  no  difficulty  in  mastering  your  Poultry  Farming 
Course.  Without  the  knowledge  I  have  obtained  from  it,  I 
could  not  have  taken  the  responsibility  of  handling  6,000  chicks 
at  one  time,  ranging  from  two  days  to  three  months,  in  a  colony 
system. 

Any  one  who  is  in  the  business,  or  intends  to  go  into  it, 
should  take  the  Course,  since  he  could  save  enough  from  his 
feed  bill  in  a  year  to  pay  for  it,  besides  producing  better  stock 
for  better  prices.  I  was  employed  as  a  carpet  weaver  on  piece 
work,  averaging  $12  a  week.  I  am  now  the  baby-chick  man- 
ager on  the  C.  P.  Davidson  farm." 

THE  BEST  MONEY  HE  EVER  SPENT 

CHAS.  H.  CARROLL,  71  Clark  St.,  Auburn,  N.  Y.:  "Although 
I  was  raised  on  a  large  farm  where  we  kept  fowls,  I  felt  the  need 
of  your  Poultry  Farming  Course.  Since  receiving  my  Diploma 
I  can  truly  say  that  it  was  the  best  money  I  ever  spent,  as  I 
can  now  manage  any  poultry  farm  with  assurance  of  success." 

WORTH  MORE  THAN  SEVEN  YEARS'  EXPERIENCE 

FRED.  BUSSE,  Carlstadt,  N.  J.:  "I  have  had  seven  years' 
experience  in  the  raising  of  poultry  and  I  find  that  I  have 
learned  more  in  three  months  from  your  Poultry  Farming 
Course  than  I  found  out  in  the  whole  seven  years  previous. 
I  recommend  the  Course  as  a  great  help  to  any  one  raising 
poultry  whether  on  a  large  or  small  scale." 

11 


The  Man  Who  Raised  the 
$100,000  Hen 

Greensboro,  Caroline  County,  Maryland 
EGLANTINE  FARM  PRODUCTS 

(Trade  Mark) 

I  am  glad  to  say  that  it  was  my  good 
fortune  to  have  enrolled  three  years  ago  as 
a  student  in  your  Poultry  Farming  Course. 
The  education  gained  from  this  study 
fitted  me  for  the  position  of  head  poultry- 
man  at  Eglantine  Farm.  Since  coming 
here  I  have  had  charge  at  all  times  of,  the 
poultry  department.  I  have  looked  after 
the  mating  of  the  fowls,  the  incubating  of 
the  eggs,  and  the  rearing  of  the  chicks. 
It  was  my  good  fortune  to  select  the  pul- 
lets of  our  own  breeding  that  have  done 
so  remarkably  well  in  the  North  American 
Egg-Laying  Contest. 

FRANK  VADAKIN, 

Plead  Poultryman,   Eglantine  Farms, 
Greensboro,   Md. 


12 


The  Best  Source 

BROOKVALE  FARM 

The  Home  of  Burr's 
WHITE  ORPINGTONS 

G.  M.  BURR,  Proprietor        MESHOPPEN,  PA. 

It  gives  me  pleasure  to  acknowledge  the 
great  assistance  your  thorough  Course  of 
Instruction  in  Poultry  Farming  has  been 
to  me.  I  had  made  several  attempts  to 
establish  a  poultry  business,  but  met  with 
many  discouragements,  and  it  was  not 
until  I  had  mastered  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples of  poultry  raising  that  I  met  with 
any  gratifying  degree  of  success.  I  have 
now  a  well-established  and  successful 
poultry  business,  and  was  the  winner  of  a 
sixth  prize  in  the  Cyphers  Company's  first 
annual  contest  of  successful  poultry  grow- 
ers. I  am  using  on  my  plant  the  Inter- 
national Sanitary  Hover.  I  have  had  ex- 
cellent success  with  it,  and,  in  my  opinion, 
i.t  is  superior  to  any  other  brooder  made. 
As  a  breeder  of  single-comb  White  Orping- 
tons, I  find  my  I.C.S.  Course  full  of  valu- 
able information  and  practical  instruction 
for  all  phases  of  the  work.  I  know  that 
any  one  going  into  the  poultry  business 
needs  such  instruction  to  make  a  success 
of  it,  as  in  my  own  case. 

G.  M.  BURR 


13 


Considers  Course  a  Valu- 
able Investment 

I  wish  to  express  my  appreciation  not 
only  for  the  value  of  your  Poultry  Course 
but  also  of  the  interest  and  personal  at- 
tention given  the  student.  For  several 
years  I  have  considered  myself  a  compe- 
tent poultryman,  well  grounded  in  the 
business  from  incubation  to  the  show- 
room, the  market,  or  the  laying  house. 
After  a  year's  study  I  find  my  knowledge 
on  every  subject  broader  and  more  prac- 
tical. From  each  lesson  I  have  learned 
something  of  value  and  consider  that,  any 
lesson,  taken  alone,  would  be  well  worth 
the  money  price  of  the  entire  Course.  As 
a  result  of  my  year's  application  of  the 
Poultry  Course  to  my  business,  I  find  in- 
creased egg  production,  marked  improve- 
ment •  in  my  laying  stock  and  breeders 
from  feeding  correctly.  I  am  breeding 
higher-quality  stock  and  on  the  whole  my 
plant  is  much  improved.  I  know  the 
Course  to  be  practical  and  workable.  It's 
scientific,  yet  easily  understood  by  a  plain 
man  like  myself.  By  my  own  experience 
I  know  it  can  be  applied  to  any  kind  of 
plant  with  benefit.  I  believe  it  to  be 
equally  valuable  to  the  beginner  and  the 
experienced.  It  has  made  and  saved  me 
many  times  its  cost.  I  wish  the  I.C.S.  all 
prosperity.  JACK  GORDON, 

571  Natoma  St.,  San  Francisco,  Calif. 


14 


CANNOT  FAIL  TO  SUCCEED 

BERT  WHITE,  Box  477,  Burlingame,  Kans. :  "Any  one 
interested  in  poultry  should  invest  in  the  Poultry  Farm- 
ing Course  with  the  I.C.S.  From  personal  experience  I 
can  say  that  any  one  that  will  study  the  Course  cannot 
fail  to  succeed.  Each  subject  is  well  explained  and 
easily  understood.  Since  I  began  to  study  my  Course 
the  profits  of  my  flock  are  rapidly  increasing." 

WORTH   MANY  TIMES   ITS   COST 

WILLIAM  R.  HALLOWAY,  River  Side  Farm,  Newark, 
Md. :  "I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  the  faculty  of 
the  International  Correspondence  Schools  for  the  assis- 
tance they  have  rendered  me  and  the  interest  they  have 
taken  in  my  progress  and  success  since  I  enlisted  for  a 
Course  in  Soil  Improvement  and  Farm  Crops.  The  In- 
struction Papers  are  very  lucid  and  cover  every  point  of 
importance  with  the  utmost  care,  thereby  making  it 
easy  for  the  person  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  what  is 
taught.  I  think  any  one  who  contemplates  making  farm- 
ing his  life  vocation  will  find  an  International  Corre- 
spondence Schools'  Course  in  Agriculture  worth  many 
times  the  cost." 

HIS   COURSE   PROFITABLE 

J.  C.  THRENHAUSER,  Fair  Haven,  Pa.:  "I  cannot  ex- 
press my  appreciation  of  the  value  of  your  Poultry  Farm- 
ing Course,  since  the  benefits  derived  are  far  beyond  my 
anticipation.  Since  taking  your  Course  I  have  spent 
some  time  at  the  government  experiment  station.  Their 
course  in  some  respects  is  quite  like  yours,  but  it  is  not 
so  extensive  or  so  complete.  I  have  been  offered  two 

nitions  to  take  charge  of  poultry  farms,  both  of  which 
eclined,  because   I  can  do  much  better  by  caring  for 
my   own   poultry." 

PUTS   PRICELESS   VALUE    ON    COURSE 
RALPH    W.    WESTON,    Box    26,    Honolulu,    Hawaii:      "I 
can  say  in  all  faith  that  the  methods  and  instruction  set 


forth  in  the  I.C.S.  Poultry  Farming  Course  are  of  price- 
less value.  I  have  applied  these  methods  in  a  small  way 
and  find  the  results  as  stated.  The  Course  is  worth 


less  value.     I  have  applied  these  methods  in  a  small  way 
and    find    the    results    as    stated.      The    Course    is 
many   times   the   expenditure  of  time   and  money." 

EARNINGS  INCREASED-HEALTH  IMPROVED 

ERNEST  BROWETT,  R.  F.  D.  4,  Pitt  Poultry  Farm, 
McDonald,  Pa.:  "When  enrolling  I  was  a  coal  miner. 
Now  I  am  managing  the  poultry  farm  of  F.  A.  Thomassy. 
The  Course  has  brought  me  better  health  and  earnings. 
No  one  should  try  to  raise  a  small  or  large  flock  of 
poultry  without. an  I.C.S.  Course." 

15 


Dollars  and  Cents 
Knowledge 

Having  been  a  subscriber  to  your  Mechan- 
ical Course  in  former  years,  I  was  pleased  to 
learn  that  you  were  issuing  a  Course  in  Poultry 
Farming.  Knowing  the  need  of  information 
on  this  subject,  I  subscribed  for  the  Course. 

In  reading  and  studying  the  first  Instruction 
Papers,  I  began  to  realize  the  greatness  and 
perfection  of  the  Course.  Step  by  step  the 
student  is  led  to  proficiency  and  also  I  find  that 
each  step  has  been  carefully  examined  before- 
hand from  one  standpoint — the  question  of  dol- 
lars and  cents.  In  this  lies  the  crux  of  the  mat- 
ter, the  secret  of  success. 

THOMAS  H.  POLLARD 
916  Eighth  Ave,,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


I.C.S.  Course  a  Necessity 
Not  a  Luxury 


Secretary,  Twin  Valley  Poultry  Association 
and  American  Partridge  Rock  Club 

Breeder  of 

IMPERIAL  PARTRIDGE  PLYMOUTH 
ROCKS 


In  speaking  of  your  Poultry  Course,  will 
say  that  it  has  no  equal.  It  is  not  "Can 
you  afford  it?"  but  "Can  you  afford  to  do 
without  it?"  No  one  will  make  a  mistake 
in  taking  an  I.C.S.  Poultry  Course.  I  owe 
my  success  to  your  Poultry  Course. 

ROBERT  H.  RAMSEY, 

Lewisburg,  Ohio 


17 


Praise  From  Farm  Owner 

Permit  me  to  express  my  gratefulness  to 
you  for  the  I.C.S.  chemical  analysis  of  my 
soil.  In  keeping  with  the  knowledge  that 
I  gained  from  the  studies  of  the  I.C.S. 
Agricultural  Courses,  the  analysis  of  my 
soil  has  made  it  more  clear  to  me  that  my 
soil  is  lacking  in  the  plant  foods  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magne- 
sium, and  organic  matter,  and  also  gave 
me  the  quantity  of  these  foods  that  should 
be  added  to  the  acre  for  profitable  results. 
In  addition  to  these,  it  proved  that  my 
soil,  is  not  acid,  and  saved  me  of  the  ex- 
penditure for  30  tons  of  lime,  which  I 
thought  my  soil  needed.  I  left  the  farm  in 
1900  after  working  5  years  as  a  farm  hand, 
but  returned  again  3  years  ago,  taking  up 
farming  for  myself.  It  was  then,  seeing 
my  deficiency,  I  immediately  enrolled  for 
the  Agricultural  Course  of  the  I.C.S.  I 
greatly  appreciate  the  time  spent  in  and 
the  understanding  received  by  studying 
these  Courses.  I  am  sure  half  of  my  suc- 
cess would  have  been  lost  had  I  done 
other  than  studying. 

JAS.  H.   DOUGLAS, 
1511  Laurel  St.,  N.  S.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


FOURTEEN  DAY  USE 

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